CHAPTER 9

Takeoff and Landing Performance

 Takeoff Performance
• Takeoffs involve much more than smooth piloting skills they involve careful
planning and preparation.
• A very smooth takeoff is of little value if the airplane, once airborne, is
faced with obstacles impossible to avoid.
• The takeoff performance of the airplane needs to be matched to the runway
and the surrounding obstacles prior to actually taking off.
 Ground Roll
• is the distance an airplane will travel on the takeoff run,from a standing start
until it leaves the ground.
• takeoff safety speed (TOSS) - the speed an aircraft with one engine
inoperative must be able to attain in order to leave the runway and get 35 feet
off the ground at the end of the runway, maintaining a 200 ft/min climb
thereafter.
 Factors Affecting
Takeoff Performance
 Weight
• A heavier airplane will require an increased ground run and takeoff distance
to clear a 50-foot obstacle because of the slower airplane acceleration and
increased takeoff speed.
• The greater weight on the wheels during the ground run increases the
friction, further reducing acceleration and increasing the distance to reach a
set takeoff speed.
 Increased Takeoff Speed
• A heavier airplane will have a higher stall speed.
 Air Density
• One cause of an increase in density altitude is a decrease in air density.
• A lower air pressure will decrease the density and this can occur as a result of
a different ground-level ambient pressure or as a result of a higher airport
elevation.
• A higher air temperature will also decrease the air density, reducing airplane
and engine performance.
• If the air density decreases, the engine–propeller combination will not
produce as much power and so the takeoff distance will increase.
• the power- producing performance of the engine–propeller decreasing, the
aerodynamic perfor- mance of the airplane will also decrease as air density
becomes less.
 Headwinds and tailwinds
• Headwinds are winds blowing against the direction of travel; tailwinds are
blowing in the direction in which an aircraft is traveling. A tailwind adds to
an aircraft's effective speed.
 Crosswinds
• A crosswind is any wind that has a perpendicular component to the line or
direction of travel. This affects the aerodynamics of many forms of
transport. Moving non-parallel to the wind's direction creates a crosswind
component on the object and thus increasing the apparent wind on the
object
 RUNWAY SURFACE
• A dry hard-paved runway causes the least amount of friction, and so this type of
surface may serve as a datum, or reference surface, on takeoff performance charts.
A runway with a short dry-grass surface, based on firm subsoil, has only a
marginally higher retarding effect. Soft ground or long grass (especially if wet) will
reduce the acceleration, and this will result in a greater takeoff distance by as much
as 25%. Gravel is considered to have the same effect as a short dry-grass surface.
Pools of water on any type of runway surface can significantly retard the
acceleration, and takeoff under such conditions requires very careful consideration.
Soft, wet ground or a soft, sandy surface might make acceleration to the liftoff
speed impossible, no matter what runway length is available.
 FLAPS
• The use of small flap settings decreases the length of the ground run. Flaps
have the effect of lowering the stall speed, which reduces the liftoff speed.
Provided that the flap setting used for takeoff is small (so that the drag is not
greatly increased), the slower liftoff speed after a shorter ground run may
enable a shorter runway to be used. If the ground surface is rough, using a
small flap setting for takeoff will allow you to get off the ground sooner.
 RUNWAY SLOPE
• Takeoff distance is calculated for a level runway, and some takeoff charts
allow for the effect of runway slope. A downslope of 2-in-100 or 2% down
will allow the airplane to accelerate faster and so will decrease the ground
roll. An upslope of 2-in-100 or 2% up will make it more difficult for the
airplane to accelerate and so the ground roll will be greater. A 2% upslope
may increase the takeoff distance to 50 feet by approx- imately 20%.
The Takeoff Distance Graph
Landing Performance
Landing Performance
 Factors Affecting
Landing Performance
 WEIGHT
• A heavier airplane will need a greater ground roll and total landing distance.
• The stall speed is increased, so the approach speed must be greater
 AIR DENSITY
• An increased density altitude results in a longer landing distance.
• A decreased air density (ρ) means an increased V (TAS) is needed to provide
the same lift force. Even though you see the same indicated airspeed in the
cockpit, the true airspeed is higher in air of lower density.
 THE EFFECT OF THE WIND
• Headwind reduces the landing distance because the groundspeed is reduced
by the headwind for the same true airspeed (V).
• Tailwind means that the groundspeed will exceed the true airspeed, and so
the touchdown speed relative to the ground is higher and a longer landing
distance will be required.
RUNWAY SURFACE
RUNWAY SLOPE
FLAPS
 FAST APPROACH SPEED
• The landing performance charts are based on specified approach speeds. If you
approach
• for a landing at a speed higher than that specified, the landing distance will
exceed
• that predicted by the chart. This is because of the greater kinetic energy of
the airplane
• and the tendency of the airplane to float at the round-out because of ground
effect
LANDING DISTANCE GRAPH
LANDING DISTANCE TABLE
 Wake Turbulence

• As a large and heavy airplane is rotated for takeoff or flared for landing, the
angle of attack is also large. The trailing wingtip vortices formed at these
high angles of attack can be strong enough to rapidly roll a following
airplane if it flies into them. This hazardous trail of wingtip vortices behind
an airplane is known as wake turbulence.
• To avoid wake turbulence accidents and incidents, Air Traffic Control may
delay the operation of light airplanes on runways behind heavy jets for up to
five minutes to allow the vortices to drift away and dissipate.
• Recent research also suggests wake turbulence (from about 500 feet down)
has the ability to descend, strike the ground, and then “bounce” back up to
about 250 feet (or more) above the surface. This is important because it is
also drifting and can drift across the landing approach path of another
unrelated runway, causing problems for pilots who think they are being safe
by going to another runway.
• Helicopters also produce wake turbulence. The helicopter blades act as a wing
to produce lift and, as the helicopter proceeds, a trail of wingtip vortices will
be left behind, just the same as for a fixed-wing aircraft. The heavier and
slower the helicopter, the stronger the wake turbulence behind it.
 TAKE OFF

When taking off after a heavy airplane has landed, plan to become airborne well past the point where it
flared and landed.
• If a heavy airplane has taken off on a different runway and you expect to be
air-borne prior to the intersection of the runways, check to ensure that the
heavy airplane was still on the ground and hasn’t rotated until well past the
intersection, before you commence your takeoff. This is because unless an
airplane is flying (or rotated for takeoff) and therefore producing lift, it will
not be producing wake turbulence.
IN THE TRAFFIC PATTERN
• Avoid flying below and behind large airplanes. Fly a few hundred feet above
them, a thousand feet below them or upwind of them. Calm days, where
there is no turbulence to break up the vortices, are potentially the most
dangerous.
•
APPROACH TO LAND
• When following a preceding landing airplane, fly above the approach path of
the heavy airplane and land well beyond his touchdown point. This is usually
possible in a light airplane landing on a long runway where heavy airplanes
are landing. Be very cautious in light, quartering tailwinds, which may drift
the vortices of the preceding airplane forward into your touchdown zone.
• If a preceding heavy airplane has discontinued its approach and gone
around, its turbulent wake will be a hazard to a following airplane. You must
consider changing your flight path in these circumstances.
JET BLAST

Do not confuse wake turbulence with jet blast, which is the high velocity air
exhausted from a jet engine. Jet blast can be dangerous to a light airplane
taxiing on the ground behind a jet, so always position your airplane when
taxiing or when stopped to avoid any potential jet blast.
 Helicopter Rotor Downwash

• Helicopters produce wake turbulence. The helicopter blades act as a wing to

produce lift, and as the helicopter proceeds, a trail of wingtip vortices will be
left behind, just the same as for a fixed-wing aircraft. The heavier and slower
the helicopter, the stronger the wake turbulence behind it. A helicopter
hovering near the runway is a hazard to small aircraft.
• Rotor downwash from a hovering or taxiing helicopter can be hazardous up
to a radius of approximately three times the rotor diameter.
• Small aircraft need to exercise care when behind helicopters that are
departing, landing, or are in forward flight
GROUND EFFECT
Ground Effect
Why does an airplane’s flight
characteristics change when it is very
close to the ground or any other
surface?

• it can fly at a slower speed than

when it is at altitude
• it can fly at the same speed using
less thrust than when it is at
altitude
 Ground Effect
• This increased performance of an airplane flying just above a surface is
known as ground effect.
• Ground effect is greatest when the aircraft is just airborne and least when the
aircraft is at an altitude above the ground approximately one wingspan’s
distance.
Ground Effect
 Ground Effect

• Reduced Drag

• Ground effect limits the size of wingtip vortices which reduces induced drag.

• Therefore, any excess speed at the point of flare may cause considerable floating.
 Ground Effect
• During Landing

• On an approach to land, the pilot will experience a floating sensation—a result of the extra
lift and the slower deceleration.

• It is therefore usually important at flare height and in ground effect to ensure that the power
is throttled back.

• This is not desirable, especially on short landing strips.

 Ground Effect
• On Takeoff

• As the airplane climbs out of ground effect on takeoff, the lifting ability of the wing
will decrease for the same airplane pitch attitude.

• You will need to increase the angle of attack to generate the same lift as you fly out of
ground effect, and either increase thrust to overcome the additional induced drag or
accept a reduced climb performance.
 Ground Effect
• On Takeoff

• Ground effect may allow the airplane to become airborne before reaching the
recommended takeoff speed.

• Once away from the takeoff surface the climb performance will be less. Aircraft might
manage to fly in ground effect, but it will be unable to climb out of it.
WINDSHEAR
EFFECTS OS WINDSHEAR ON AN
AIRPLANE
OVERSHOOT AND
UNDERSHOOT
EFFECT
WINDSHEAR REVERSAL EFFECT
CROSSWIND EFFECT