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UNIT 2
DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
T.E (Ist Semester)
PULSE MODULATION
The process of transmitting signals in the form of
pulses (discontinuous signals) by using special
techniques.
Such as
• Pulse Amplitude
Modulation
• Pulse Width Modulation
• Pulse Position
Modulation
• Pulse Code Modulation
Pulse Modulation
Analog Signal
Amplitude Modulated
Pulses
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM or PLM or PDM):
* In this type, the amplitude is maintained constant but the duration
or length or width of each pulse is varied in accordance with
instantaneous value of the analog signal.
* The negative side of the signal is brought to the positive side by
adding a fixed d.c. voltage.
Analog Signal
Analog Signal
Timer
~
fs>=2W
sync Timer
•Therefore the choice of these parameters is made such that noise due
to quantization error is in tolerable limits.
Problems
1. The bandwidth of TV video plus audio signal is 4.5MHz. If this
signal is converted to PCM bit stream with1024 quantization
levels, determine number of bits/sec generated by the PCM
system. Assume that the signal is sampled at the rate of 20%
above Nyquist rate.
W=4.5MHz, q=1024
fs=20%+2W
r=?
Problems
1. A TV signal has a bandwidth of 4.5MHz.This signal is sampled,
quantized and binary coded to obtain a PCM signal. Determine
the sampling rate if the signal is to be sampled at a rate 20%
above the Nyquist rate. If the samples are quantized into 1024
levels, determine the number of binary pulses required to encode
each sample. Determine the binary pulse rate(bits per second) of
binary coded signal and the minimum bandwidth required to
transmit the signal.
W=4.5MHz, q=1024
fs=20%+2W
v=?,r=?,BT=1/2vW
Problems
• A CD records audio signals digitally by using PCM. Assume the
audio signal bandwidth to be 15kHz.What is Nyquist rate? If the
Nyquist samples are quantized into L=65,536 levels and then binary
coded, determine the number of binary digits required to encode a
sample. Determine the number of binary digits per second required
to encode the audio signal.
W=15kHz, q=65536
fs=2W
v=?,r=?
PCM
• Sampling signal based on nyquist theorem
Original signal
PCM pulse 3 4 3 3 4
with quantized error 1
Classification of
quantization
Mid-tread Mid-
Zero is one of the Zerorise
is not one of the
output levels M is output levels M is
odd even
Midtread quantizer
∆
Maximum instantaneous value of 2
quantization error is
Midrise quantizer
Output
2Δ
0<=input<∆ ;output= ∆ /2
Δ/2 3Δ/2 Input- ∆ <=input<0;output= -∆ /2
Midtreader Midriser
ri: output levels
Step size is constant di: input levels
• For a non-uniform quantizer, the quantization
• error power is related to the quantizer’s input
• distribution, since it has smaller quantization
• step for small input and larger quantization step
• for large input.
S = 3P .22v
N x2max
x x’ x’ y
Q(.
C(.) )
Compressor Uniform Quantizer
• Quantization levels are not necessarily equally
spaced. The problem with equal spacing is
that the mean absolute error for each sample is
the same, regardless the signal level. Lower
amplitude values are relatively more distorted.
• Nonlinear encoding reduces overall signal
distortion
• Can also be done by companding
• Nonuniform quantization
• ♦ In the case of uniform quantization levels, the
• quantization noise power depends only on the spacing
• between the levels, and is independent of the actual
• signal level at any instant.
• ♦ The SNR decreases with a decrease in the input power
• level relative to the maximum range of the quantizer,
• which is undesirable in many applications.
• ♦ For example, in a speech system a fixed quantization
• noise power will be more objectionable when a quiet
• speaker is speaking than when a loud one is.
• Nonuniform quantization
• ♦ A remedy is to use nonuniform
quantization levels. This
• can be achieved by using a nonuniform
quantizer:
• As in speech transmission, the same quantizer
has to
• accommodate input signals with widely varying
power
• levels.
• ♦ A nonuniform quantizer for which the SNR
remains
• constant over a wide range of input power levels
is
• called robust.
• Probability density function
• ♦ A uniform quantizer makes sense when the
probability
• distribution of the signal in the range -Vmax to Vmax is
• uniform. If we have reason to believe that the
• distribution is nonuniform, and we know what the
actual
• distribution is, then we can place nonuniform
• quantization levels in an optimal manner.
Nonuniform quantization
Probability density function
• ♦ Recall from the discussion on information theory that the
• entropy is maximized if the probability of occurrence of
• each level is equal.
• ♦ Therefore we should choose the quantization levels such
• that the probabilities of occurrence in each level are
• equal.
Nonuniform quantization
Companding
• ♦ More often, nonuniform
• quantization is achieved by
• first distorting the original
• signal with a nonlinear
• compressor characteristic, and
• then using a uniform quantizer
• on the result:
Nonuniform quantization
Companding
• A given signal change at small magnitudes will then
• carry the uniform quantizer through more steps than the
• same change at large magnitudes. At the receiver, an
• inverse compression characteristic (or expansion) is
• applied, so that the overall transmission is not distorted.
• The processing pair (compression and expansion) is
• usually referred to as companding.
Nonuniform quantization
μ-law compander
• The μ-law compander is
• characterized by
• ♦ Vout = log(1+μVin) / log(1+μ)
• ♦ The μ-law companding is
• used for PCM telephone
• systems in the USA, Canada
• and Japan, with the standard
• value of μ = 255
Nonuniform quantization
A-law compander
• The A-law compander is
• characterized by
• ♦ Vout = A*Vin / {1+log(A)}
• ♦ for Vin < 1/A
• ♦ Vout = A*{1+log(A*Vin) /
• {1+log(A)}
• ♦ for 1/A ≤ Vin
• ♦ The A-law companding is
• used for PCM telephone
• systems in Europe, with A =
• 87.56
Nonlinear encoding
Quantizing level
15 15
14 14
13
13
12
11Strong signal 12
10 11
10
9
8 Weak signal 9
8
7 7
6
6 5
5 4
4 3
3 2
2
1
1
0 0
vi C
Co
om
m prr
p e
ess
sso
orr L
Line
ina
err
a Network L
Line
ina
err
a E
Ex
xpa
pand
nde
err vo
cc
ircu it
ircuit A DC
ADC D AC
DAC cc
ircuit
ircuit
vi v’o
Prior to the input signal being sampled and converted by ADC into a
digital form, it is passed through a circuit known as a compressor.
Similarly, at the destination, the reverse operation is perform on the
output of the DAC by a circuit known as expander.
Uniform and Nonuniform Quantization
Companding
• Nonuniform quantizers are difficult to make and expensive.
• An alternative is to first pass the speech signal through a nonlinearity before
quantizing with a uniform quantizer.
• The nonlinearity causes the signal amplitude to be Compressed.
– The input to the quantizer will have a more uniform distribution.
• At the receiver, the signal is Expanded by an inverse to the nonlinearity.
• The process of compressing and expanding is called Companding.
µ -Law Companding
1
0 1
Input |x(t)|
µ −law Encoder Transfer Characteristics
A-law and µ −law Companding
• These two are standard companding methods.
• u-Law is used in North America and Japan
• A-Law is used elsewhere to compress digital telephone signals
Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)
• Signal is first sampled and then the difference between the
successive samples is quantized .
• Encode the changes between consecutive samples
• This difference is encoded to a digital value.
^
DPCM - Receiver
Delta Modulation
• This scheme sends only the difference
between pulses, if the pulse at time tn+1 is
higher in amplitude value than the pulse at time
tn, then a single bit, say a “1”, is used to
indicate the positive value.
• If the pulse is lower in value, resulting in a
negative value, a “0” is used.
• This scheme works well for small changes in
signal values between samples.
• If changes in amplitude are large, this will result
in large errors.
Delta Modulation - example
Delta modulation components
DM system- Transmitter
Delta demodulation components
DM system- Receiver
Delta modulation is subject to two types of
quantization error:
slope overload distortion and
granular noise (Hunting).
The process of delta modulation
Illustration of the two different forms
of quantization error in delta
modulation.
Slope overload distortion
Input + Output
One-bit
x(nTs) Σ
Quantizer
-
Delay
Ts
A D M - Receiver
Input + Low-Pass Output
X Σ
Filter
Delay
Logic for Ts
Step-size
Control
ADM