Fundamentals of Acoustics

The Nature of a Sound Event

 Sound consists of vibrations of air molecules
 Air molecules are analogous to tiny superballs
 Sound occurs when air molecules are disturbed and made to ricochet off of
each other
The Nature of a Sound Event
 The ricochets cause the density of the air
molecules to oscillate

Rarefied Normal Compressed

The Nature of a Sound Event
 The ricochets cause the density of the air
molecules to oscillate back and forth

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 Wave Types
Sound consists of longitudinal waves

The wave’s
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propagation
oscillation

Water waves are transverse waves

The wave’s
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Sound
Propagation
Sound waves
propagate in a
sphere from
the sound
source (try to
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Note that the
molecules
themselves are
not
travelling.
Sound Perception
 Speed of sound (in air):
1128 ft./sec (344 m/sec)
 When sound waves reach the eardrum, they
are transduced into mechanical energy in
the middle ear
 The mechanical motion is transduced into
electrical current in the inner ear. The
auditory nerves interpret the current as sound
Sound Wave Plots
 Sound waves are typically represented with
molecular density as a function of time

compressed

normal
time

rarefied

molecular density
Music vs. Noise
Musical sounds are typically periodic – the wave repeats regularly
repeats
Sine wave
Though they don’t exist in
nature, sine waves are often
useful for demonstrating
properties of sounds

Noise is aperiodic – there is no repeating pattern

Noise
Properties of a Musical Event
A musical event can be described by
four properties.
Each can be described subjectively, or
objectively (in terms of measured
Subjective
properties) Objective
Pitch Frequency
Volume Amplitude/Power/Intensity
Timbre Overtone content
Duration in beats Duration in time
 Frequency/Pitch
quency is measured in cycles per second, or Hertz (

f = 2 Hz one second

Wavelength (),
the distance
between
corresponding 
points on the
wave, is the
inverse of1000 ft./sec.
= c =
frequency. =500 ft./cyc.
f 2 cyc./sec.
 Frequency/Pitch
Middle A = 440 Hz
 2.3 ft.
=

frequencie
20 Hz < s audible 20,000
< Hz (20 kHz)
to humans
 = 50 ft.  = 0.05 ft.

avelengths are significantly larger than light wave

Waves reflect from a surface
if its height/width is
larger than the wavelength
 Waves refract around
surface if the surface
dimensions are smaller
than the wavelength

ts wavelengths
explains whyare
we far
can too
hearsmall
soundtofrom around
refract corner
around a
cannot
ble see around corners:
surface
 Our Pitch Perception is
Logarithmic
Equivalent pitch intervals are perceived
according to an equivalent change in
exponent, not in absolute frequency
For example, we hear an equivalent pitch
class with every doubling of frequency
(the interval of an octave)

Frequencies of successive octaves of concert A

55 110 220 440 880 1760 3520

55 x 20 55 x 21 55 x 22 55 x 23 55 x 24 55 x 25 55 x 26
 Our Pitch System is Based on
Equal Division of the Octave
2 Tone Equal Temperament –
he octave is divided into twelve equal increments

We can describe an octave by:

• choosing a starting frequency
n/12
• multiply it by for 2 n = 0 to 11
A A# B C C# D D# E F F# G G#
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
220 x 212220 x 212220 x 212220 x 212220 x 212220 x 212220 x 212220 x 212220 x 212220 x 212220 x 212220 x 212
220 233 247 261.6 277 293.6 311 329.6 349.2 370 392 415.3

gher octaves may be created by doubling each freque

ower octaves may be created by halving each frequen
 Phase
se = “the position of a wave at a certain ti
If two waveforms at the same
frequency do not have
simultaneous zero-crossings,
weWavesay they
1 + Wave 2 are “out of phase”
Wave 1
Two waves at
the same
Wave 2 frequency but
different
phase
of sound perception, phase can be critical or impe
see...
 Loudness
oudness is related to three measurements:
• Power
• Pressure
• Intensity

All three are related to

changes in sound pressure level
(molecular density)
Molecular Motion is Stationary
 As sound travels, molecules are not traveling with
the sound wave
 What is traveling is an expanding sphere of energy
that displaces molecules as it passes over them
 How strong is the force behind this energy wave?
 The more force is contained in a sound wave, the
greater its perceived loudness.
Power
Power = the amount of time it
takes to do work (exert force,
move
Powersomething)
is measured in
watts, W
There are two difficulties in measuring
sound
Thepower
range levels.
of human hearing encompasses many
millions of watts.
Sound power level is also relative, not
absolute. Air molecules are never
completely motionless.
Given these two difficulties, sound
power levels are measured on a scale
that is comparative and logarithmic,
the decibel scale.
 Logarithmic Scale
Logarithm = exponent
xponent is typically an integer, a logarithm not ne

102 = 100 log10100 = 2

103 = 1000 log101000 = 3
102.698 = 500log10500 = 2.698
102.875 = 750log10750 = 2.875

Logarithms allow us to use a small

range of numbers to describe a
large range of numbers
 The Decibel Scale
 The decibel scale is a comparison of a
sound’s power level with a threshold level
(the lowest audible power level of a sine
tone at 1 kHz).
Threshold (W0):
-12
W =0 10 watts

ower level of a given sound in watts, L

L (dB)
W = 10*log
10 (W/W
0 )
 Decibels
Typical power levels:
Soft rustling leaves 10 dB
Normal conversation 60 dB
Construction site 110 dB
Threshold of pain 125 dB

Halving or doubling sound power level

results in a change of 3 dB.
For example, a doubling of the threshold
level may be calculated:
⎜4×10
⎛ −12⎞⎟
LW(dB) = 10log10⎜⎜ ⎟=10log ⎜2⎟ =
⎛ ⎞
10⎝ ⎠ 3.01 dB
⎝2×10 ⎠
−12 ⎟

Thus, a power level of 13 dB is twice

that of 10 dB. A power level of 60
dB is half that of 63 dB, and so on.
 Pressure changes
The degree of fluctuation present in a
vibrating
Peak pressureobject
level:
Maximum change in sound pressure level
(more generally: in a vibrating
system, the maximum displacement
from equilibrium position)

The amplitude level fluctuates with the

wave’s oscillation.
 Pressure changes
Also may be described as changes in
sound pressure level (molecular
density). 2
sure level is measured in Newtons per square meter
-5
2 x 10
Threshold: N/m2 (p
0 )
There is a direct relationship between
pressure and power levels:
For any propagating wave (mechanical,
electric, acoustic, etc.) the energy
contained in the wave is proportional to
the square
Pressure of itsare
changes pressure change. in
also expressed
decibels, but in a way that describes an
equivalent change in power level:
L (dB)
W = 10*log10(W/W
= 010*log
) 10 (p/p=0)20*log
2
10(p/p0)
This is how
logmn =
nlogm pressure is
Pressure changes
In audio parlance, “amplitude” (the
degree of pressure change) is often
equated with “loudness.”
The reason is that modifications to
volume are made by adjusting the
amplitude of electrical current sent to
an amplifier.
But perceived loudness is actually based
on power level plus the distance of the
listener from the source.
 Intensity
Power corresponds to the sphere of
energy expanding outward from the
sound source
The power remains constant, spread
evenly over the surface of the
sphere
Perceived loudness depends primarily
on the sound power level and the
distance from the sound event
Power combined with distance is
2
intensity, I, measured in watts per
square meter (W/m ).
Intensity is also measured in
decibels: -12 2
L (dB)I = 10*log 10 (I/I
0 )
I =
0 10 W/m
Timbre
The perceived difference in sound
quality when two different instruments
play at the same pitch and loudness
Sine waves are useful as demonstrations
because they are a wave with one
frequency only, thus they are often
termed pure tones
Natural sounds are composed of multiple
frequencies
To understand how a wave can be
composed of multiple frequencies, we
can consider the behavior of a wave in
a bounded medium, such as a string
secured at both ends (or air vibrating
within a pipe)
 Timbre
When we pluck a string, we initiate wave motion

he wavelength is twice the length of the string

The perceived pitch is the
fundamental, the speed of sound
divided by the wavelength
Timbre

This curved shape

represents the string’s
maximum deviation
It’s more accurate to think
of it as a series of
suspended masses (kind of
like popcorn strung
together to hang on a
Christmas tree).
 Timbre
Each suspended mass can vibrate independently.
Thus, many simultaneous
vibrations/frequencies occur along a
string.
When a string is first plucked, it
produces a potentially infinite
number of frequencies.
Timbre
Eventually, the bounded nature of the
string confines wave propagation and the
frequencies it can support
Only frequencies that remain in phase
after one propagation back and forth can
be maintained; all other frequencies are
cancelled out
Only frequencies based on integer
subdivisions of the string’s length,
corresponding to integer multiples of the
fundamental, can continue to propagate
Timbre
These frequencies are called harmonics

NOTE:
These
frequencies
are equally
Therefore,
spaced
they do not
all produce
the same pitch
as the
Therefore,
fundamental
other
frequencies
are introduced
…etc.
Timbre
 Harmonics are well known to many
instrumentalists
– Strings
– Brass
 Timbre
 The first six harmonics are often the
strongest:

220 440 660 880 1100 1320

Fundamental OctavePerfect fifth Octave Major third
Perfect fifth

 People can learn to “hear out” harmonics

Timbre
 Instruments and natural sounds usually
contain many frequencies above the
fundamental
 These additional frequencies, as part of the
total sound, are termed partials
 The first partial is the fundamental
Timbre
 The first partial is the fundamental
 Other terms are also used
 Overtones are partials above the
fundamental (the first overtone is the
second partial)
 Harmonics are partials that are integer
multiples of the fundamental
The Spectrum
 Jean Baptiste Fourier (1768-1830) discovered a
fundamental tenet of wave theory
 All periodic waves are composed of a series of
sinusoidal waves
 These waves are harmonics of the fundamental
 Each harmonic has its own amplitude and phase
 The decomposition of a complex wave into its
harmonic components, its spectrum, is known as a
Fourier analysis
 The Spectrum
It is often more useful to
represent complex waveforms with a
spectral plot as opposed to a time
domain plot

time domain spectral domain

amplitude as a function of time amplitude as a function of frequen
Sound in Time
 Our perception of sound and music events
is determined by the behavior of frequency
and loudness over time
 Sound in Time
 All instruments can be characterized by
changes in amplitude over time (the
envelope)
loudness

trumpet bowed harp time

violin
Changes in amplitude often correspond
with changes in frequency content...
Sound in Time
 Most instrument’s sound begins with an initial
transient, or attack, portion
 The transient is characterized by many high
frequencies and noise
 Example: the scraping of a bow or the chiff of
breath
 An instrument’s distinctiveness is determined
primarily by the transient portion of its sound
Sound in Time
 Following the transient, instruments usually
produce a steady-state, or sustained, sound
 The steady state is characterized by
– Periodicity
– Harmonic spectrum
 The Spectrogram
Most natural sounds (and musical
instruments) do not have a stable
spectrum.
Rather, their frequency content
changes with time.
The spectrogram is a three-dimensional
plot:
Vibraphone note at 293 Hz (middle D)
2) frequency

3) power of a given frequency (darkness level)

1) time

The instrument’s sound is characterized by the fundamental at 293 Hz and the fourth harmonic at 1173 Hz.
The attack also contains noise below 2 kHz, the tenth harmonic at 2933 Hz and the seventeenth harmonic at 49
Once the steady state portion sets in, the highest harmonic fades first, followed by a fading of the fundamental
Localization
 The auditory system localizes events through
interaural time delay – the sound wave reaches the
nearer ear a few milliseconds before it reaches the
farther ear
 For stereo systems, using delay for localization is
impractical because it requires people to listen
from a “sweet spot”
 Localization effects are simulated through
differences in loudness
Localization
 In a multi-speaker system, a sound emanating
from one speaker will be localized at that speaker
 A sound produced at equal volume from two
speakers will be perceived as a “phantom image”
placed in space between them
 Changing the volume balance between two
speakers will cause the phantom image to “drift”
towards the louder speaker
Measurement and Perception
 Our perception of auditory events is based
on all these measurements in combination
 And more
 An auditory event may be more than the
sum of its parts
Measurement and Perception
Phase
 Changing the phase of components in a steady-
state tone produces no perceptible change in
sound, although the shape of the wave may change
noticeably
Measurement and Perception
Phase
 The behavior of components in the attack segment is likely
to be far more complex than in the steady state segment
 Changing the phase of attack components can change the
character of the attack
 Solo performance sounds different from group
performance because no two players can ever sound at
exactly the same time; thus the attack is blurred
 Since an instrument’s characteristics are defined primarily
by the attack, the phase of attack components is critical
Measurement and Perception
Timbre
 We have discussed timbre as the result of overtone content
 It is also judged by the sound’s envelope
 Research in sound synthesis has shown the envelope shape to
be more definitive than an exact match of overtone content
 The attack portion is critical—a faster attack can be confused
with “brightness” (more high frequency overtones)
 Considerable research has gone into the creation of “timbre
space,” a multi-dimensional plot in which timbres are
classified according to overtone content, envelope and attack
time
Measurement and Perception
Loudness
While intensity is the measurement most
closely correlated to loudness, the
perception of volume is based on a number
of factors, not all of them entirely
measurable.
 Measurement and perception
Loudness
Perceived loudness is frequency-dependent
Loudness level (phons)

Limit of pain 2
Sound pressure level
Newtons/m

(dB)

Perceived
120

120 2 x 10

110

equal 110
100

90 fff
2

loudness of 80
80

70
ff

f
2 x 10
-1

sine tones 60
60 mf

2 x 10
-2

50 p

This is why 40
40 pp

2 x 10
-3

many
30 ppp

20

receivers
-4
20 2 x 10

10

Threshold of hearing

have a
0
-5
0 2 x 10

Loudness
20 100 500 1,000 5,000 10,000

Frequency (Hz)

knob
Equal loudness curves (Fletcher, Munson, 1930s).
Measurement and perception
Loudness
Perceived loudness is frequency-dependent
Within close frequency ranges, perceived
loudness is proportional to the cube root
of intensity
Two violins playing the same pitch will
generate twice the
intensity of one violin, but will not
To achieve
sound twicetwice the volume, eight
as loud
violins are required
Measurement and perception
Loudness
Perceived loudness is bandwidth-dependent

Increasing the bandwidth (component

frequency content) of a sound makes
it sound louder, even if the
intensity remains constant
Despite many efforts, no one has
suceeded in creating a definitive
perceptual scaling system for
loudness
Measurement and Perception
Loudness
Some have argued that estimation of
loudness is not automatic
(measurable), but depends on a number
of higher-level estimations of
distance,
Hermann import,
Helmholtz, On context, etc.of Tone
the Sensations
(1885):
…we are exceedingly well trained in
finding out by our sensations the
objective nature of the objects around
us, but we are completely unskilled in
observing these sensations per se; and
the practice of associating them with
things outside of us actually prevents
us from being distinctly conscious of
the pure sensations.
Measurement and Perception
Conclusion
Objective measurements can tell us
more about sound events
By the same token, they give us
insight into what we don’t know
This course will examine music in
technical terms will give us some new
This examination
insights
It will also give us an idea of where
music crosses the barrier from the
objective (acoustics) to the
subjective (magic?)