REVERSE OSMOSIS

Sergio Rapacchi
INDEX
• OVERVIEW
• OSMOTIC PRESSURE
• RECOVERY FACTOR
• WATER ANALYSIS
• MEMBRANE CLEANING
• MODELS FOR LOW SALINITY OR BRACKISH
• MODELS FOR SEA WATER
• PHOTOS
 REVERSE OSMOSIS
Reverse Osmosis is the process which occurs when a saline solution is put in
contact with a water permeable membrane (but impermeable to the
dissolved solids) at a pressure higher than the osmotic pressure of the
solution. A solution (permeate) with a saline content lower than the original
solution will pass through the membrane, while a salt rich solution
(concentrate) will be determined outside the membrane.

The Reverse Osmosis process is the reverse of the “direct” osmosis process
which occurs naturally in the absence of pressure external to the system.
When two solutions of different concentrations and contents in two
different containers are put in contact through a semi-permeable
membrane, there is a flow from the less concentrated solution to the more
concentrated solution, leading to a reduction of the concentration in the
latter. At the end of the flow, an inequality between the two solutions is
evidenced which represents the value of the osmotic pressure of the more
concentrated solution.

The Reverse Osmosis process can occur only by applying a pressure higher
than the osmotic pressure to the more concentrated solution, which allows
the passage of the solvent from the concentrated solution to the less
concentrated solution.

Higher the value of the pressure applied, the higher the permeate flow
 OSMOTIC PRESSURE

The value of the osmotic pressure can be determined through a formula

which considered the qualitative and quantitative composition of the
salts contained and the temperature.

With regards to specific computer programs, they permit the

determination of the osmotic pressure values easily.

An approximate but extremely simple and instantaneous calculation of

the osmotic pressure at 25 °C can be executed by dividing the T.D.S.
expressed in p.p.m by 1500.

Example:
T.D.S. = 3.000 p.p.m.
Osmotic pressure = 2 bar
Direct osmosis

Reverse osmosis
 RECOVERY FACTOR

The recovery factor is the relationship between the flow rate of the permeate and the
flow rate of the feed water.
Permeate
R = -------------------------------------- x 100
Feed Water
The recuperation factor is a fundamental project datum and is fixed considering various
parameters such as, for example:

• Solubility limits of encrusting salts (calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, etc.)

• Possibility of obstruction of the membrane due to fine colloidal solids
• Size of the plant

Economic considerations:
In general the recuperation factors for various types of water are:
- Water after Osmosis
- Water with low Salinity
- Brackish water
- Sea Water
:T.D.S. less than 10 p.p.m
R = from 80% to 90%
:T.D.S. less than 500 p.p.m.
R = 75% max
:T.D.S. less than 8,000 p.p.m.
R = from 50% to 75%
: T.D.S. up to 47.000 p.p.m.
R = from 10 to 40%
Simplified diagram of the functioning of the reverse osmosis
process
 WATER ANALYSIS
In order to correctly plan an Reverse Osmosis plant, a complete analysis of the water must be
available.

This is indispensable in order to establish the performance that can be obtained from the Reverse
osmosis plant and to predict the suitable type of pretreatment besides.

The more information there is available about the quality of water to be treated, the more the
certainty in planning the Reverse osmosis plant with the related pretreatment.

The data that needs to be known is:

• Origin of the water (from the mains water , well water, surface water, sea water, etc.)
• pH
• T.D.S. (Total Dissolved Solids)
• Composition of the salts:
- Calcium Ca++ - Bicarbonates HCO3-
- Magnesium Mg++ - Chlorides Cl-
- Sodium Na++ - Sulphates SO4--
- Potassium K+ - Nitrates NO3-
- Iron Fe++ - Fluorides F-
- Manganese Mn++ - Phosphates PO4---
- Barium Ba++
- Strontium Sr++
- Ammonia NH4+ - Silica soluble SiO2
• S.D.I. (Silt Density Index)
• Temperature ( projected, minimum, maximum)
• Bacteriological analysis
 TEMPERATURE

The temperature of the water to be treated has a fundamental

importance since on increasing it, it is found that:

• The flow rate of the permeate increases

• The quality of permeate worsens

Note:

In order to obtain the required flow rate of the permeate at a lower

temperature, the pressure needs to be increased
For reverse osmosis plant to be planned correctly it is necessary to
refer to the minimum temperature of the water to be treated. This
parameter is often undervalued by planners showing inferior plant
performance during its start and determining reasons for disputes
by the Client.
Moreover, it happens that every membrane has a maximum
operational temperature which varies between 40 and 45°C.
 15

13
Feed pressure, bar

11

7
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Feed wat er t emper at ur e, °C

 25

S
20
Permeate salinity, ppm TDS

15

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Feed water temperature, °C

SUSPENDED SOLIDS / COLLOIDAL SUBSTANCES
The suspended solids must be removed during pretreatment in order to prevent blockage in
the membranes. Other than suspended solids, colloids; i.e. particles that remain in
suspension and do not tend to clump, can be found in the water to be treated.

– Surface water :high level of suspended solids and colloid

– Subterranean and/or well water :low level of suspended solids and colloids
(due to the filtering action of the layers of
earth)

In order to judge the contents of the colloidal substances, the

SDI (Silt Density Index)
is essential

Higher the value of the SDI, the higher the content of the colloidal substances present in the
water to be treated. In the reverse osmosis membrane, there is a total rejection of the
colloidal substances which, thus concentrate and can cause the phenomenon of
coagulation/flocculation and thus lead to the blockage of the membrane.

This phenomenon is one of the most frequent causes of malfunction of the reverse osmosis
plant, and thus must be avoided in the planning phase with suitable pretreatment.

The suitable size of the pretreatment must be studied to obtain a value of SDI which is less
than 3.
 BACTERIA AND CHLORINATION

The removal of bacteria and virus is absolute, but it is proper that there are
no bacteria or virus present in the water to be treated in order to avoid the
proliferation of bacteria and thus blockage.

A chlorination of the system, if nor present already (mains water), is

advisable (corresponding to the size of the plant) to slow down the
proliferation of bacteria (or algae) in the treatment lines as well as the
membrane.

For the spiral osmotic modules wrapped in composite Film, the limit of free
chlorine is 0.1 p.p.m but it is advisable to operate in the absence of free
chlorine.

In order to obtain the scenario mentioned above, it is important to insert a

dechlorination system in the pretreatment by installing a active carbon
filter or more commonly treating with sodium metabisulphite following the
reverse osmosis plant. This product is acidic in nature and hence lowers the
pH has a further positive action of dissolving the calcium carbonate.
 SALT PRECIPITATION
Since salts accumulate in the concentration, it can happen that it crosses the solubility equilibrium and
Precipitates.Considering as a precaution that there is a total rejection of salts, the concentration factor is
given by the formula:
1
Cf = ------------------
-R/100
Example:
R= 25% Cf= 1,3
R= 50% C= 2,0
R= 75% Cf= 4,0
R= 85% C= 6,6

It is necessary to avoid the possibility of salt precipitation the obstruction of which cal sometimes be difficult
to remove and additionally can damage the membrane in an irreversible manner.

The right planning must provide for salt precipitation and thus the maximum recuperation factor (Cf) must
be
calculated as a function of the overcoming of the solubility equilibrium of the salts contained in the water.
To raise the salt solubility and thus the recovery obtainable, specific chemical products can be added:

• Hydrochloric or Sulfuric acid:

To avoid precipitation of calcium carbonates (lowering the pH increases the solubility equilibrium
of calcium carbonates)

• Antiscalant:
To avoid the precipitation of the sulphates of calcium, barium, strontium and calcium fluorides
(by increasing the solubility of these salts)
 IRON AND MANGANESE

Bivalent iron can be oxidized using the oxygen dissolves

in the water or by other oxidizing agents present, due to
which it is necessary to avoid concentrations of Fe++
greater than 0.1 p.p.m.

The contents of manganese in the water to be treated

must be less than 0.05 ppm. If greater than such a value,
a suitable pretreatment must be planned.
 SILICA

If a high standard of Silica (SiO2) is present dissolves in the feed water the
possibility of precipitation needs to be checked.

The silica content in the concentrate is given by the formula:

SiO2 (concentrate) = SiO2 (feed)xCf

If the concentration of silica crosses the solubility, the silica can coagulate
or form silica colloids or gel which can block the membrane.

The obstruction due to silica can, in general, be avoided by lowering the

pH or with a chemical “conditioning” during pretreatment. In addition, it can
also be avoided by raising the temperatures within possible limits.
 SULPHUR AND SOLVENTS

In addition to the chemical substances and the substances considered in

the preceding paragraphs, the following substances and/or compounds
must be checked:

• Colloidal Sulphur

If the water to be treated contains sulphurated hydrogen (H2S) it is

important to ensure that oxidizing agents such as air and chlorine come
in contact with the water forming colloidal sulphur which is a highly
obstructing compound.

• Solvents, oils, grease, emulsions and natural polymer

These compounds can form a thin film which adheres to the membrane
and can change the performance
 MEMBRANE CLEANING

Cleaning the membrane is an important

phase in the maintenance program of
every inverse osmosis plant.

In order to carry out a proper cleaning

operation is necessary to know the type of
obstruction and the characteristics of the
cleaning products available in the market.
 WHEN TO CLEAN THE MEMBRANES
Even with correct precautions, an efficient pretreatment and correct
maintenance of the plant, a progressive blocking of the osmotic modules
can be seen over a period of time.
The time in which the membranes become blocked depends on the
efficiency of the pretreatment system and the effectiveness of the anti-
precipitation product used. There are few plants in which the washing
procedure need never be carried out and where the operation is carried out
only once a year or even once in two years.
However OMC recommends regular washing, at least once or twice a year,
in order to always maintain the membranes in perfect efficiency.
It is essential to wash the membranes at the initial level of blockage.
Washing is recommended when one or more of the following parameters
changes by 10-15%

– Increase in the conductibility of the permeate

– Increase in the pressure difference
– Increase in the feed pressure
– Decrease in production

Note:
If the performance of the plant decreases more than 30%, it is often difficult to bring
the plant back to optimal conditions.
 TYPICAL PROCEDURE TO WASH THE MEMBRANE
Eight main steps are carried out for the washing procedure:

1. Preparation of the mixture: While preparing the solution ensure that the products used are well mixed and completely
dissolved. Check the pH of the solution more than once. Some of the washing solution must appear clear.

2. Washing in slow current: Pump the washing solution at a 50% of the flow rate mentioned in table 1. Regulate the flow
rate and the pressure with the regulatory valves after the recycling pump. Regulate the pressure only to compensate the
load loss between the feeding and the concentrate. The pressure must however be so as provide for the production of the
permeate. Low pressure minimizes the phenomenon of absorption of the deposits on the membrane. Remove the
concentrate when necessary to prevent the dilution of the washing solution.

3. Recycle: After the dispersion of the process water, the washing solution must be present in the wash stream. Recycle the
concentrate in the of the washing solution storage tank. Stabilize the temperature of the washing solution. Observe the
turbidity of the solution to evaluate its efficiency. If the solution is colored or becomes turbid, start again with a new
solution. Check the pH value during the acid wash. Remember that the pH value changes with the dissolving of the inorganic
precipitates. If the pH increases above 0.5 units add the product.

1. Stabilization: Stop the pump and allow homogenization. Sometimes, an hour is enough. If it is very dirty, then the time
period can go up to 10 -15 hours. In these cases, a high temperature must be maintained using a circulation flow rate equal
to 10% of that shown in table 1.

• Washing in fast current: Feed the washing solution at the flow rate shown in table 1 for 30 -60 minutes. The higher flow
rate determines the removal of the precipitates from the surface of the membrane. In case it is very dirty, increase the flow
rate by 50% of what is indicated in the table for acid wash. The use of a high flow rate can determine a higher load loss due
to the possible problems caused by dirt. The maximum acceptable load loss is 1.4 bar per element or 4. 1 bar per multi-
element vessel. For 8 inch elements, the direction of the flow during the washing must be the same as that of normal
operation in order to avoid telescopization of the elements.

2. Drainage: Drain the exhausted solution from the system. It is recommended that a sample of the exhausted solution and
the initial solution is taken in order to analytically determine the quantity of substance removed during washing.

3. Rinsing: Permeated water or good quality water (filtered, SDI <3, free of bacteria and residual chlorine, conductibility
<10000 microsiemens/cm) must be used for the rinsing process. To prevent possible precipitation, use water at a
temperature greater than 30°C during this phase. Before restarting, ensure that there is no washing solution remaining in
the plant.

1. Restart: Restart the plant under normal operating conditions. Drain the permeate for at least 10 mins or in any case until it
shows the presence of the washing solution. When the use of different washing solutions is anticipated, ensure that there
are no residues of the previous solution in the plant, so as to avoid chemical reactions between the various solutions. If the
system is not reactivated for more than 24 hours after washing, then it is necessary to keep the system in a preserving
solution bath.
LOW SALINITY AND/OR BRACKISH PLANTS

The low salinity reverse osmosis plants are used to demineralize mains water or well
water having a low saline content . (TDS around 500 p.p.m. max) while the reverse
osmosis plants for brackish water (TDS 10.000 p.p.m. max) in addition to being used
industrially can also be used for potable water.

These, unlike the ion exchanging resin plants, do not require the use of acid and soda
(which leads to the problem of treating the regeneration eluate) their functioning is
reliable in the long term and their management is simple.

The plants used industrially require pretreatment, often limited to a dose of

sequestrant, which keeps the calcium carbonates and sulphates in solution.

The plants that are used for potable water, on the other hand, besides requiring a
pretreatment, needs a post treatment section to correct the pH (traditionally acidic) and
lightly re-mineralize the permeated product.

However, in each case, pre and post treatment depend solely on the chemical-physical
and bacteriological analysis of the feed water.
TYPICAL DIAGRAM OF THE BRACKISH WATER REVERSE OSMOSIS
DEMINERALIZATION PLANT
DESALINATION PLANT TO MAKE SEA WATER
POTABLE
Treatment levels
- Initial chlorination
- Flocculant dosing station
- Multilayered filtration
- Acid dosing station
- Sequestrant dosing station
- Sodium metabisulphate dosing station
- Microfilatration 5 µm
- High pressure pump
(with the possible system of energy recuperation)
- Reverse osmosis unit
- Final disinfection
- Correction of the pH, hardness and alkalinity
- Cleaning and flushing station
FLOW DIAGRAM OF THE SEA WATER DESALINATION REVERSE
OSMOSIS 2x2.000 mc/d CAPACITY
MEDIUM POTENTIALITY
HIGH POTENTIALITY PLANT
DOUBLE PASS R.O.