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CARDIOVASCULARE
Principalele mecanisme implicate în geneza plăcii de aterom sunt:
- fazele iniţiale ale dezvoltării plăcii (I-III) sunt plăci stabile care prezintă un cap
fibros gros, regulat şi nu prezintă risc de ruptură, iar clinic bolnavul e asimptomatic;
- fazele finale IV-VI – (spre care marea majoritate a pacienţilor evoluează) prezintă
plăci cu cap fibros subţire, fragil, vulnerabil la ruptură. Capul fibros poate fi subţiat
prin procese inflamatorii şi/sau infiltraţie monocitară, activarea metaloproteinazelor
(eliberate din celulele inflamatorii prezente în interiorul plăcii ateromatoase),
prezenţa LDLox, creşterea nivelurilor factorilor de creştere şi alte fenomene.
Stresul determinat de presiunea diastolică crescută poate produce ruperea plăcii
ATS în zona vulnerabilă (cel mai frecvent, zona dintre marginea plăcii şi peretele
normal, sau la zona de bifurcaţie a 2 artere). Exprimarea miezului lipidic la torentul
circulator determină agregarea trombocitelor, formarea trombusului iar clinic apare
durerea toracică.
Coronary mortality:
alarming worldwide forecasts
Atherosclerosis:
a multifactorial disease
Arterial wall:
structure and function
Different stages of atherosclerotic plaque
development
Vascular endothelium modification
in atherosclerosis
Plaque formation
1 — Fatty streak
Plaque formation
2 — Fibrous cap
Plaque formation
3 — Lipid core
From plaque to thrombosis, key event:
plaque rupture
Plaque vulnerability
Key role of macrophages
Vulnerable plaque
Key role of the macrophage in vascular wall inflammation
Vulnerable plaque
Key role of the macrophage in the degradation of the fibrous cap
Thrombus formation
The macrophages release coagulation factors
Oxidized LDL and thrombogenesis
Plaque disruption
(plaque cracking, fissuring, rupture – thrombosis start point)
Lipid core constitution
Activated macrophages accumulate lipids
Lipid core constitution
LDL oxidation
Parietal vascular inflammation
The activated macrophage produces inflammatory cytokines
Parietal vascular inflammation
NFB action in the inflammation process
Dyslipidemia and atherosclerosis
Diabetes and atherosclerosis
Tobacco and atherosclerosis
HTN, hemodynamic factor and atheroclerosis
Fibrinogen is an independent risk factor
for atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis
Pathophysiology of atherosclerotic plaque
Plaque rupture
inflammation markers (CRP (C-reactive protein), amyloid A)
Intracoronary thrombus
increased coagulation factors and proteins (prothrombin fragments F1+2; II – ATIII
(thrombin – antithrombin III complex)
increased soluble fibrin monomers
increased P-selectin (a platelet membrane protein)
reduced blood coronary flow
imaging changes
fibrinolytic system activation (spontaneous / therapeutic)
increased P-AP2 (plamin – antiplasmin 2) complexes, fibrin degradation products (D-
dimer)
Myocardial ischemia
early ischemic indicators: glygogen phosphorylase BB
ECG - ST depression
Myocardial necrosis
biochemical markers: CKMB, cTnT, cTnI
ECG - ST elevation
Cardiac markers
Enzymes:
- CK, isoenzyme CK-MB, isoforms CK-MB2 and CK-MM3
- CK-MB mass
- ASAT, ALAT
- LDH, isoenzyme LDH1
Non-enzymatic markers:
- Troponins cTnT, cTnI
- Myoglobin
- H-FABP
- NT-proANP, NT-proBNP
- Galectin
- Inflammatory markers:
- hsCRP
- IL6
- VCAM1
- Fibrinogen
- IL18
Markers of inflammation and plaque instability: from foam cell to
plaque rupture
Explorarea metabolismului lipidic în bolile
cardiovasculare
TG 50 – 150 mg/dl
Nespecifice
•VSH crescut.
LDH1, LDH2:
specifice miocardului;
cresc în IM şi în anemia megaloblastică (mai ales LDH2);
în IMA - LDH1 > LDH2.
creşte mai rapid decât CK şi se menţine crescută mai mult timp decât LDH
(7-14 zile)
•malondialdehida (MDA):
marker de peroxidare lipidică;
creşte la 2 ore de la debutul IM şi după tratamentul trombolitic.
Lp (a) lipoproteina (a) – este o particula LDL care are legat de apoB100 1-2 particule de apo(a). Apo(a) are omologie
structurală cu plasminogenul şi de aceea interferă cu acesta pentru situsul de activare al tPA (activator tisular al
plasminogenului). Concentraţii crescute ale acestei particule lipoproteice vor determina un dezechilibru intre coagulare si
fibrinoliză in favoarea coagulării.
•scade Mg total şi scade Mg ionic;
•cresc acizii graşi liberi (AGL) – secundar lipolizei activată de hormoni de stres (adrenalină, etc.). AGL leagă Mg de aceea
scade Mg ionic în ser. Deoarece terapia cu Mg în IM este controversată, la subiecţii cu IM dozarea Mg este utilă, tratamentul
cu Mg aplicându-se numai celor cu valori scăzute ale Mg ionic. Mai mult, scăderea Mg va stimula eliberarea de adrenalină
închiderea cercului vicios; adrenalina în doze mari şi mai ales pe infarct produce aritmii.
•Mg se administrează cu B6 care determină creşterea concentraţiei intracelulare a Mg. Deficitul de Mg
este accentuat de tratamentul cu Ca.
•scăderea Mg ionic este strâns legată de scăderea K+. Deoarece dozarea Mg ionic e dificilă, se indică
dozarea K+ - când acest cation este scăzut se indică administrare şi de Mg !
•Adiponectina
-peptid produs de adipocite
-factor antiaterogen
-intervine mentinera functionalitatii normale a endoteliului vascular
-intervine in mentinerea unui raspuns celular normal la actiunea insulinei
7. Glicogen fosforilaza BB (GP-BB)
Se activează rapid în situaţii de hipoxie, lizează glicogenul şi apoi este exportată rapid în spaţiul extracelular,
probabil prin sistemul de tuburi cât şi prin permeabilizarea membranei celulei miocardice secundar ischemiei
Este marker de ischemie al cardiomiocitelor în fazele iniţiale
Specificitatea sa este comparabilă cu a CK-MB
Studii clinice arată că senzitivitatea GP-BB în primele 2 ore de la debutul infarctului este mai mare decât a CK-MB
masă, cTnT, cTnI
Creşte în angina pectorală instabilă mai rapid ca alţi markeri
Alţi markeri:
8.1 Interleukina 6 (IL6) – citokina proinflamatorie, secretata de diverse celelule din
placa ateromatoasa (monocite/macrofage, celule endoteliale). Concentratii mari de IL6
s-au depistat in zonele de minima rezistanta a placii aterogene, unde este colocalizata
cu receptorul AT1 pentru angiotensina II (ATII). IL6 stimuleaza expresia receptorilor AT1
la nivel endoteliului vascular mediind astfel vasoconstictia produsa de ATII, productia de
radicali liberi initiind astfel disfunctia endoteliului.
Numeroase studii clinice si epidemiologice au investigat valoarea predictiva a
interleukinei 6 pentru evenimente acute cardiovasculare, chair si la subiecti aparent
sanatosi
8.2 Acidul uric
8.3 Fibrinogenul
8.4 Molecula solubilă CD40L (sCD40L)
8.5 MPR 8/14 (myeloid-related protein 8/14)
8.6 Adiponectina – molecula produsa de adipocit, cu efecte antiinflamatorii, inhiband
activarea monocitelor, celulelor musculare netede si a enteliului vascular. De asemenea,
inhiba secretia de IL6 de catre monocitele activate. Este scazuta la obezi, la cei cu
scaderea tolerantei la glucoza, la diabetici sau la cei cu sindrom metabolic, explicand
corelatiile fiziopatologice dintre aceste entitati clinice si predispozitia acestor pacienti de
a dezvolta ateroscleroza si boli cardiovasculare.
8.7 Interleukina 18 (IL18) este o citokina proinflamatorie care stimuleaza productia de
interferon gama, raspunsul de tip Th1 (proinflamator) cat si expresia la nivelul placii a
metaloproteinazelor matriceale, deci este un potent marker al destabilizarii si
vulnerabilitatii placii aterogene.
8.8 Metaloproteinaza matriceală 9 (MMP 9).
Diagnosis of heart disease
Because of its dangerous consequences great efforts have
been made to determine the best tools for the early and
accurate diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction (AMI).
WHO determined criteria for the diagnosis of AMI
History acute, severe and prolonged chest pain
ECG
Serum cardiac markers an initial rise and subsequent fall of
certain enzymes/proteins serum concentration
• Enzymes
AST, LD are less used
Creatinine kinase, CK-MB
• Cardiac proteins
Myoglobin
Troponin T and troponin I
Cardiac myosin light chains
Lab diagnosis of AMI
Enzymes
AST
LD
These enzymes were used as indicator for MI but they are
less used in diagnosis because of lack of specificity to
cardiac cells
Although LD isoenzyme determinations increase specificity
for cardiac tissue, with the LDI and LD2 subfractions being
most indicative of cardiac involvement, the National
Academy of Clinical Biochemistry recommends that LD and
LD isoenzymes no longer have a role in diagnosis of cardiac
diseases
Creatine kinase (CK)
Creatine kinase (CK) is a cytosolic enzyme involved in the
transfer of energy in muscle metabolism.
It is a dimer comprised of two subunits (the B, or brain
form, and the M, or muscle form), resulting in three CK
isoenzymes.
The CK-BB (CKl) isoenzyme is of brain origin and only found in
the blood if the blood-brain barrier has been breached.
CK-MM (CK3) isoenzyme accounts for most of the CK activity
in skeletal muscle,
whereas CK-MB (CK2) has the most specificity for cardiac
muscle, even though it accounts for only 3-20% of total CK
activity in the heart, it can be used as a marker of early AMl
CK-MB (CK-2)
CK-MB is a valuable tool for the diagnosis of AMl because of its
relatively high specificity for cardiac injury.
Extensive experience with CK-MB has established it as the gold
standard for other cardiac markers.
It takes at least 4-6 hours from onset of chest pain before CK-
MB activities increase to significant levels in the blood.
Peak levels occur at 12-24 hours, and serum activities usually
return to baseline levels with 2-3 days
Although the specificity of CK-MB for heart tissue is greater
than 85%, it is also found in skeletal muscle and false-positive
results may be caused at clinical conditions such as muscle
disease and acute or chronic muscle injuries
CK-MB (CK-2)
CK-MB activity assays have been increasingly replaced by CK-MB mass
assays that measure the protein concentration of CK-MB rather than
its catalytic activity.
These laboratory procedures are based on immunoassay techniques
using monoclonal antibodies and have fewer interferences and higher
analytic sensitivity than activity-based assays.
Mass assays can detect an increased concentration of serum CK-MB
about 1 hour earlier than activity-based methods
To increase specificity of CK-MB for cardiac tissue, it has been
proposed that that a ratio (relative index) of CK-MB mass/CK activity
be calculated If this ratio exceeds 3, it is indicative of AMI rather
than skeletal muscle damage
CK isoforms may be effectively used as indicators of reperfusion after
thrombolytic therapy in patients with confirmed AMI
Time profiles of cardiac markers after AMI
Cardiac Proteins
Several proteins may be monitored in suspected cases of AMI to give
significant diagnostic information
Myoglobin:
an oxygen-binding heme protein that accounts for 5-10% of all
cytoplasim proteins
It is rapidly released from striated muscles (both skeletal and
cardiac muscle) when damaged.
Because of the abundance of myoglobin in cardiac and skeletal muscle
tissue, the upper reference limit of serum myoglobin directly reflects
the patient's muscle mass and, therefore, varies with gender, age, and
physical activity.
However, because of its small size, myoglobin is rapidly cleared by the
kidneys, making it an unreliable long term marker of cardiac damage.
Myoglobin
Myoglobin is significantly more sensitive than CK and CK-MB activities during
the first hours after chest pain onset
It rises 1-4 hours
Peaks 6-9 hours
Returns to normal 18-24 hours
If myoglobin concentration remains within the reference range 8 hours
after onset of chest pain, AMI can essentially be ruled out.
CK-MB determinations are preferable over myoglobin in
patients who are admitted later than 10-12 hours after chest pain onset
because the myoglobin concentration may have already returned to
reference ranges within that time frame
patients with renal disease (renal failure) because myoglobin will be
consistently increased as a result of decreased clearance by the diseased
kidneys.
Myoglobin can be used as an indicator of reinfarction
A persistently normal concentration will rule out reinfarction in patients with
recurrent chest pain after AMI
Troponins
Enzymes, electrolytes, and proteins are integrated to convert the
chemical energy of ATP to into mechanical work and allow the muscle
to contract
Actomyosin, ATPase, calcium, aktin, myosin, and a complex of three
proteins known as troponin complex are major participants in muscle
contraction
The three polypeptides of the troponin complex are troponin T,
troponin I, and troponin C.
Troponin C is not heart specific.
Unlike CK-MB, the serum troponins are not found in the serum of
healthy individuals.
The cardiac troponins may be released in reversible ischemia as well
as irreversible myocardial necrosis.
Troponins
TroponinT
Troponin T (TnT)
Allows for both early and late diagnosis of AMI.
Serum concentrations of TnT
Begin to rise within a few hours of chest pain onset and
Peak by day 2.
A plateau lasting from 2 to 5 days
The serum TnT concentration remains elevated beyond 7 days
before returning to reference values.
The early appearance of TnT gives no better diagnostic information
than CK-MB or myoglobin concentrations within the first 4 hr, but the
sensitivity of TnT for myocardial infarct is 100% from 12 hours to 5
days after chest pain onset.
Also, the degree of elevation of TnT after AMI is significant, often up
to a 200-fold increase over the upper limit of reference intervals
TroponinT
TnT concentrations are particularly useful for diagnosing myocardial
infarction in patients
Who do not seek medical attention within the usual 2- to 3-day
window during which total CK and CK-MB are elevated
It is also useful in the differential diagnosis of myocardial damage
in patients with cardiac symptoms as well as skeletal muscle injury
because the TnT results will clearly and specifically indicate the
extent of the cardiac damage
Cardiac TnT also has value in monitoring patients after reperfusion
of an infarct-related coronary artery.
The degree of elevation of TnT on days 3-4 after AMI can also be used
as a practical and cost-effective estimate of myocardial infarct size
Troponin I
Troponin I (TnI) is only found in the myocardium making it extremely
specific for cardiac disease.
It is also found in much higher concentrations than CK-MB in cardiac muscle,
making it a sensitive indicator of cardiac injury.
TnI is not found in detectable amounts in the serum of patients with
multiple injuries or athletes after strenuous exercise, in patients with
acute or chronic skeletal muscle disease, in patients with renal failure, or in
patients with elevated CK-MB, unless myocardial injuries are also present.
TnI is a good biochemical assessment of cardiac injury in critically ill
patients, those with multiple organ failure, and situations in which CK/CK-MB
elevations may be difficult to interpret.
Time profile
Increases above the reference range 4 and 6 hours after the onset of
chest pain
Peaks 12-18 hours
Returns to reference values in about 6 days
Markers of inflammation and coagulation disorders
Studies have evaluated several acute phase proteins as potential
markers for cardiovascular risk assessment,
There is evidence that C-reactive protein (CRP) is a reliable predictor
of acute coronary syndrome risk
CRP is an acute phase reactant produced primarily by the liver.
It is stimulated by interleukin-6 and increases rapidly with
inflammation.
CRP is a sensitive marker for ongoing chronic inflammation that is
not affected by ischemic injury.
It rises significantly in response to injury, infection, or other
inflammatory conditions
is not present in appreciable amounts in healthy individuals.
hs-CRP
Reliable, automated high sensitivity assays for CRP (hs-CRP) are exist that
allow detection of the small increases of CRP often seen in cardiac disease
Epidemiologic data document a positive association between hs-CRP and the
prevalence of coronary artery disease.
Elevated baseline levels of hs-CRP are correlated with higher risk of future
cardiovascular morbidity and mortality among those with and without clinical
evidence of vascular disease.
hs-CRP also demonstrates prognostic capacity in those who do not yet have a
diagnosis of vascular disease
The level of CRP has been shown to correlate with future risk as follows:
CRP level less than 1mg/L: lowest risk
CRP levels of 1 to 3mg/L: intermediate risk
D-Dimer is the end product of the ongoing process of thrombus formation and
dissolution that occurs at the site of active plaques in acute coronary syndromes.
Because this process precedes myocardial cell damage and release of protein
contents, it can be used for early detection.
It remains elevated for days so it may be an easily detectable physiologic marker
of an unstable plaque even when the troponins or CK-MB are not increased,
potentially identifying high-risk patients
D-Dimer lacks specificity for cardiac damage as it is increased in other conditions
that cause thrombosis.
Elevations of D-Dimer have been shown to be useful in predicting risk for
future cardiac events.
Markers of congestive heart failure
Brain-type, or B natriuretic peptide (BNP), is a peptide hormone secreted
primarily by the cardiac ventricles.
It acts on the renal glomerulus to stimulate urinary excretion of sodium and to
increase urine flow without affecting the glomerular filtration rate, blood
pressure, or renal blood flow
Plasma concentrations of BNP are increased in diseases characterized by an
expanded fluid volume (renal failure, hepatic cirrhosis with ascites, primary
aldosteronism, and congestive heart failure)
Diagnosis of congestive heart failure (CHF) is difficult because of its nonspecific
symptoms, as well as the lack of a specific biochemical marker
Patients with a BNP < 20 pmol/L are unlikely to have CHF
Patients with BNP > 20 pmol/L have a high probability of CHF
BNP may also be clinically relevant in determining the prognosis of patients,
especially those with a diagnosis of CHF or those who have experienced a
recent AMI
Other markers for AMI
Glycogen phosphorylase isoenzyme BB (GPBB)
More sensitive than the other markers during the first 3-4 hours after
onset of chest pain
It is not specific for cardiac tissue
Heart fatty acid-binding protein (H-FABP)
H-FABP content in skeletal muscle is only 10-30% of that found in cardiac
muscle, it is more sensitive than myoglobin
It increases rapidly within 2-4 hours, peaks within 5-10 hours and returns to
normal within 24-36 hours
The magnitude of the increase in plasma levels has a good correlation with
the size of the infarction
Carbonic Anhydrase (CA) Isoenzyme III
CAIIl is not found in cardiac muscle and, therefore, can be used to
differentiate between skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle damage when
performed in conjunction with a more heart-specific analyte such as
Other markers
Ischemia-modified albumin (IMA)
IMA is produced when albumin comes into contact with ischemic tissue, altering it
and making it more resistant to binding metals
IMA is produced continually during ischemia and rises within 2-3 hours of an is
chemic event
Homocysteine
Homocysteine is a naturally occurring amino acid found in blood, which is associated
with vitamin B1, B6, and folic acid deficiency.
An elevated homocysteine level is a potential risk factor for coronary heart disease,
cerebral vascular disease, carotid artery disease, and peripheral vascular disease by
promoting plaque formation.
Cardiac myosin light chains (MLC)
Cardiac myosin light chains (MLC) are also involved with
muscle contractions.
Recent research has determined that MLC is no more specific
for cardiac injury than CK-MB determinations
Like the troponins, MLC is released from reversibly ischemic
tissue.
Although rapid testing of MLC is available, MLC determination
does not offer any advantage over cardiac troponin assays.
MLC remains of limited clinical significance as a routine cardiac
marker
lipoprotein phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA2)
Lp-PLA2 generates oxidized molecules within the blood vessel
wall that increase the potential of atherosclerosis and
irritability of the atherosclerotic plaque
Elevations in the levels of Lp-PLA2 have been shown to
indicate greater risk of plaque formation and rupture
independent of the levels of either lipids or CRP
Patients with elevated levels of Lp-PLA2 seem to be at a
greater risk of cardiac events
Patient Focused Cardiac Tests
Because the situation of patient of serious, special
care should be considered
The initial patient evaluation be performed within 20
minutes of arrival to the emergency department (ED)
The optimum turnaround time from patient arrival to
the availability of test results for cardiac markers
should be about 30-60 minute
The role of lab in monitoring heart disease
Cardiac troponins (I and T) Chest pain or potential heart Injury to the heart
attack
Ischemia modified albumin Chest pain or potential heart Possible diminished blood flow
attack to the heart
Natriuretic peptides (BNP) Shortness of breath; possible Probable congestive heart
heart failure failure
Lipids (cholesterol, HDL, Current or future risk of increased risk of
LDL) atherosclerosis atherosclerosis
Current or future risk of
C-reactive protein atherosclerosis Increased risk of cardiac
events
Current or future risk of
Lipoprotein phospholipase atherosclerosis
A2 Increased risk of cardiac
events
• An 83-year-old man with known severe coronary artery disease,
diffuse small vessel disease, and significant stenosis distal to a
vein graft from previous CABG (coronary artery bypass graft)
surgery, was admitted when his physician referred him to the
hospital after routine office visit. His symptoms included edema,
jugular vein distention and heart sound abnormalities. Significant
laboratory data obtained upon admission were as follows:
Urea nitrogen 53 6-24 mg/dl
Creatinine 2.2 0.5-1.4 mg/dl
Total protein 5.8 6.0-8.3 g/L
Albumin 3.2 3.5-5.3 g/L
Glucose 312 60-110 mg/dl
Calcium 4.1 4.3-5.3 mEq/L
Phosphorus 2.4 2.5-4.5 mg/dl
Total CK 134 54-186 U/L
CK-MB 4 0-5 ng/L
% CK-MB 3% <6%
Myoglobin 62 <70g/L
Troponin T 0.2 0-0.1 g/L
Questions:
Do the symptoms of this patient suggest
AMI?
Based on lab data, would this diagnosis be
AMI? why or why not?
Based on the lab data, are there other
organ system abnormalities present?
What are the indicators of these organ
system abnormalities?
Is there a specific lab data that might
indicate congestive heart failure in this
patient?