UNIT 7

WIRELESS MODULATION TECHNIQUES AND HARDWARE

 Contents

•Introduction
•Fiber optic cables
•Characteristic of air interface
•Radio wave propagation and propagation models
•Wave propagation effects at uhf and above
•Path loss models for various Coverage Areas
•Multipath and Doppler effects
•Wireless Telecommunications Coding Techniques
• Digital Modulation Techniques
•Spread Spectrum Modulation Techniques
•Diversity Techniques
•Typical GSM System Hardware
•Typical CDMA System Hardware
 Wireless Modulation Techniques and Hardware
Introduction
• General characteristics of conductor based transmission lines.
• At low frequency the current flows within the conductor and is not prone to
radiate away from the transmission line
• At high frequency the current flow takes place near the conductor surface
(due to skin effect )
• At RF and HF ,TL acts a s structure that guides an electromagnetic wave
• Common types of wire line TLs are unshielded and shielded twisted pair,LAN
cable ,co axial cable
• Wire line TL acts like a low ass filter ,their signal attenuation increases with
frequency
• Characteristics are it will provide different levels of band width,maximum
transmission rate and reliability,susceptability to noise and frequency
response.
 Fiber optic cables
• It is the ultimate telecommunication transmission media Having a potential for
unlimited band width it is not susceptible to electromagnetic interference and its
physical construction blocks ingress of stray protons that cause problems
• Do not have any noise problem it is just that the noise is quantum in nature.
• Optical detector at the far end of the optical link has sufficient photons reaching
it, BER will be extremely low

Characteristic of air interface

•If more BW or capacity is needed in a fixed system ,it is possible to increase

the capacity by physically installing additional transmission links.But this is
not true for the air interface
• Radio wave propagation and propagation models
1. Wave propagation below 2 MHz: EM Waves travel as ground waves .
 Launched by vertical antennas these waves tend to follow the
curvature of the earth and loose strength rapidly as they travel away
from the antenna.
 They do not penetrate the ionosphere layers that exist in the upper
portion of earth atmosphere
2 Wave propagation between 2 and 30 MHz-propagates as sky waves
• Bouncing off of ionospheric layers these EM waves may propagates
completely around earth through multiple reflections or “hops” between
the ground and the ionosphere

3. Wave propagation above 30 MHz-tends to travel in straight lines or

“rays “and therefore limited in their propagation by the curvature of earth
WAVE PROPOGATION EFFECTS AT UHF AND ABOVE

World’s mobile wireless system use UHF(300-3000MHZ)

For signal propagation both indoors and outdoors, three major effects tend to
determine the final signal level that is received at the MS from BS
According to reciprocity theorem, the path loss for these two cases should be
identical.
1. Reflection
2. Scattering
3. Diffraction
 Reflection occurs for EM waves incident upon some type of large surface
 For smooth surface EM waves undergo Specular Reflection, which means
the angle of incidence equals to the angle of reflection.
 The signal power reflected from a smooth surface or transmitted into it is a
complex function of the type of material, the surface roughness, frequency
of the incident EM wave and other variables.
 The more Electrically conductive the surface or the higher the material’s
relative Dielectric constant, the greater the amount of signal reflection.
SCATTERING : occurs when the signal is incident upon a rough surface or
obstacles smaller than a wavelength.

 This case produces what is known as DIFFUSE REFLECTION

Ie the signal is scattered in many different random directions simultaneously

DIFFRACTION : causes EM waves to appear to bend around corners

Path loss models for various Coverage Areas

 For free space propagation : The propagating signal power of an EM

waves decreases by the square of the distance travelled as it spreads out.
The EM wave undergoes an attenuation of -6dB every time the distance it
travels doubles.
The power received from an antenna radiating PT watts in free space is known as
Friis equation.
 PROBLEMS
OTHER PATH LOSS MODELS: Two ray model: this model assumes a direct
LOS Signal between transmitter and receiver and another signal path that consists
of reflected signal off of a flat surface of the earth
 TWO path length will vary depending upon the antenna height, and the
reflected and LOS signal can vary in intensity due to the motion of the mobile and
other variations in propagation conditions
The composite signal received at the MS antena will consists of EM waves that
add constructively or destructively
Multipath and Doppler effects
 The receiver experiences real-time fluctuations in RSS due to the
combined consequences of Doppler Effects and the rapidly changing
Multipath propagation due to motion of the mobile.
 The rapid changes in signal phase due the rapid changes in signal
propagation distance can cause deep fluctuations in the RSS.
 Multipath delay spreading leads to both time dispersion of the
received signal and frequency selective fading.
 Doppler effect leads to frequency dispersion and time selective fading.
 Both fading effects are modeled as Rayleigh Distribution.
 A major effect of Multipath delay spread is an increase in ISI,if the
delay spread is either comparable or larger than the symbol time
 To migrate this effect channel equalization and directional antennas
are used in the receiver
RAYLEIGH FADING MULTIPATH FADING
• Wireless Telecommunications Coding Techniques
– Error detection and correction coding
 Errors tend to occur in 1 bit at a time in a a wire line systems
where in wireless systems it tends to occur in bursts.
 Error control coding (ECC) is the technique used to code the
transmitted bits to control the overall bit error rate.
 Voice data traffic can accept much higher bit error rates than the
transfer of packet data information.
 If low bit error rate cannot be achieved in packet data
information, the system can ask for retransmission of the data
packet, known as Automatic repeat request(ARQ).
 Block codes,convolutional and Turbo codes are used to enhance
transmission of packet data over wireless systems
 Block code
•In block coding system takes a block of data bit and encode them into another block of
bit with some additional bits that are used to detect or combat error
•Eg;the use of parity bits for singe error detection
•For multiple error detection additional bits may be generated through a matrix of
polynomial generator and added to the original block of bits to form a code word that
will be transmitted by the system
•A code word generated by a polynomial is a form of cyclic code and the codes of this
type are known as CRC
Convolutional and turbo encoder
• A convolutional encoder does not map block of bits into code words instead a
continuous stream of bits is mapped into a output stream that possess redundancy
•Turbo encoder are modified form of combined convolutional encoder that can be used
to create a new class of enhanced error correction codes
•A typical turbo encoder is constructed from two systematic recursive convolutional
encoders connected in parallel with an interleaver preceding the input of the second
convolutional encoder

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 Speech coding
• The speech coders used for GSM and CDMA wireless systems take 20ms segments
either previously encoded speech or raw speech and pprocess it into low bit rate
digitally encoded speech in preparation for its transmission over the air interface

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Block interleaving

•It is a technique used by a mobile wireless system to combat the affect of bit
error introduced during the transmission of frame
•Error control code used by the system may be able to correct one bit error
out of a block of 8 bits ,it is not able to correct of say 6 error within the 8 bit
block
•If the bits of block can be interleaved with bits of other block ,the burst of six
errors can be spread out over six other blocks and the ECC can correct each of
the single bit errors in each of the six blocks
• Wireless Telecommunications Coding
Techniques
– GSM channel encoding
• Classes of bits
• Encoding
• Interleaving operations
• Digital Modulation Techniques
– Review of digital modulation techniques
• FSK, MSK, n-PSK, and n-QAM
• Bandwidth efficiency
• BER
– Typical QPSK transmitter
– See Figure
• Digital Modulation Techniques
– Digital frequency modulation
• First generation systems uses conventional FM to provide voice service
over 3KHz
• Second generation systems use a form of digital frequency modulation
known as Gaussian minimum shift keying or GMSK
– Digital phase modulation
• In digital phase modulation base band informationn signal is encoded in
phase of the transmitted RF signal
• Here pulse shaping filters are used to control the side lobe amplitude of
the resultant QPSK signal
• The diff between QPSK & GMSK is that QPSK is not a constant amplitude
signal nor is it a constant phase signal
• This fact combined with the non linearity associated with RF Power
amplifier used in base and mobile station transmitter give rise to less
than optimal performance for this type of digital modulation
• Due to the fact that the QPSK signal can go to zero at times(as it
transitions between symbols},side lobe generation is possible and probable
• Enhancement to basic QPSK modulation are O-QPSK which applies the
I,& Qbit streams to the balanced modulator of the QPSK transmitter with a
time delay of half of a symbol time,T2 between them
• The net result of this modification is to reduce the fluctuations in the signal
amplitude and the amount of phase shift between the diff symbols

•п/4 QPSK is a combination of two QPSK

•Here the transition from one symbol to another never goes through zero
amplitude
•The phase shift from the previous symbol indicates the binary bit pair of new
symbol
•It also reduce the signal amplitude fluctuation and thus reduces the magnitude
of possible side lobe regeneration
 Digital Modulation
p/4 QPSK
There are two kinds of mode for QPSK : Mode A and Mode B

Mode A Q Mode B Q Binary 11

Binary 01 Binary 11 p/2
3p/4 p/4

I
p 0

I Binary 01 Binary 10

5p/4 7p/4
Binary 00 3p/2 Binary 00
Binary 10

Symb (I,Q) φ Symb (I,Q) φ

ol ( 2 / 2, 2 / 2) ol (0 , 1)
(11)A (- 2 / 2, 2 / 2) p/4 (11)B (-1 , 0) p/2
(01)A (- 2 / 2,- 2 / 2) 3p/4 (01)B (-1 , -1) p
(00)A ( 2 / 2,- 2 / 2) -3p/4 (00)B (1 , 0) -p/2
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(10) -p/4 (10) -p/4
 Digital Modulation
p/4 QPSK
By combining these two modes we can get p/4 QPSK
(11)B
p/2
(01)A (11)A
3p/4 p/4
Symb (I,Q) φ
ol
( 2 / 2, 2 / 2)
p 0
p/4 QPSK
(11)A (0 , 1) p/4
(01)B (10)B Signal (11)B p/2
Constellati (- 2 / 2, 2 / 2)
5p/4
(00)A
7p/4
(10)A on (01)A (-1 , 0) 3p/4
3p/2

(00)B
(01)B (- 2 / 2,- 2 / 2) p
• QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (00)A (-1 , -1) -3p/4
• Quadrature: four possible phase shift amounts; (00)B ( 2 / 2,- 2 / 2) -p/2
therefore, each symbol carries two bits (efficient!) (10)A (1 , 0) -p/4
• p/4:The constellation at each symbol is rotated
(10)B 0
p/4 from the previous symbol.
• highly bandwidth-efficient
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• OFDM
•OFDM, a modulation technique chosen as a modulation scheme for the IEEE 802.11 a
wireless LAN std
•It is really a form of multicarrier multisybmbol ,multi rate FDM in which user gets to
use all FDM channels together
•The carriers of the FDM channels possess the property of orthogonality which means
the orthogonal signal will not interfere with each other at a receiver
•In implementation of an FDM instead of attempting to transmit N symbols per second
over a single forward carrier link M carriers are used to transmit N/M symbols Per
second which end with the same data rate N
•The frequency spacing between each carrier is chosen to satisfy the orthogonality
criteria
•For each carrier a multi symbol digital modulation scheme is used to transmit more
than one bit per symbol time
•OFDM has the ability to sense radio channel quality and be able to fall back to lower
data rate as needed. This can be done with multi rate modems that only transmit only
as many bits per symbol
• Spread Spectrum Modulation Techniques
– Frequency hopping spread spectrum
• FHSS consists of a system that changes the centre frequency
of transmission on a periodic basis in a pseudorandom
sequence
• Spread Spectrum Modulation Techniques
– Direct sequence spread spectrum
 In this case a spreading code is applied to the baseband data stream at the transmitter
and the same spreading code is applied to the received signal to perform
demodulation.
 The spreading chips are many times shorter in duration than the baseband bits that
they are encoding and spreading ,the final transmitted signal now consists of many
more bits or symbols per second than the original data stream.
 To improve the noise immunity characteristics of DSSS System and to allow more
than one signal to be transmitted on the same carrier frequency simultaneously,
special. orthogonal Walsh codes are used as part of spreading process.
• Other coding forms
• pulse position modulation(PPM): An older Technique that embeds information in the
position of a pulse or codeword relative to a fixed periodic time signal
• Complementary code keying(CCK): Where a stream of data bits to be transmitted is
subdivided into groups of bits and each group is encoded by a special orthogonal
code
• Ultra-wideband Radio Technology
– Sharing radio frequency spectrum instead of looking for new frequency bands
for new services
• Diversity Techniques
– Introduction to diversity operation
– Specialized receiver technology
• RAKE receiver
• Equalization
• Diversity Techniques
– Space diversity
• Theory
• Space and polarization diversity
• Diversity Techniques
– Single antenna interference cancellation
• To improve downlink performance of a GSM system
• Joint detection (JD) and blind interference cancellation (BIC)
• In both cases systems tend to suppress interference that would increase the bit error
rate of the system
– Smart antennas
• Theory of operation
This Technique is to improve system performance makes use of
phased array or ”beam steering” antenna systems.

This type of antenna can use narrow pencil-beam patters to

communication with a subset of the active users within a cell.

Once a mobile subscriber has been located by the system,a

narrow radio beam may be pointed in the user’s direction through
the use of antenna technology

It will eliminate most multipath signals and will improve system
performance

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• Typical GSM System Hardware
BSC TRC
– Base station controller
• Specific BSC parts
– Group switch, sub-rate switch exchange/interface circuits,
transcoder rate adaptation unit, system control, power supply,
and environmental conditioning unit

TYPICAL GSM BSC BLOCK DIAGRAM

The Group Switch is used to cross-connect 64kbps timeslots,by placing a call
onto the
Correct timeslot on the correct communications link to the correct RBS.

The substrate switch is able to switch traffic at submultiples of 64kbps (n×8

kbps)

Transcoder performs the translation of 64kbps PCM into digitally encoded

(vocoded) speech
At a rate of 13Kbps toward the RBS and reverse the process towards the MSC

Packet control unit provides the interface between the serving GPRS and the
RBS for transmission of data over the GSM air interface

The connection from the PCU to RBS is able to provide data transfer rates of
16kbps.
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BSC RADIO NETWORK OPERATIONS
To provide optimal radio resource management

mobility management

connection management

Monitors the use of radio resources and RSS

measurements to make decisions about handover
operations and power level control

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 • Typical GSM System Hardware
– Radio base station
• Radio base station subsystems
– Distribution switch unit, timing and control, transmitter/receiver units, and
combining and distribution units
• RBS transceiver unit
– Signal processing and control subsystem, transmitter units, and receiver units

05/10/2014
• Typical GSM System Hardware
– RBS antenna systems
• Combining and distribution unit example
• Typical antenna configurations
• Hybrid combiner
• Duplex filter
• See Figure
• Typical GSM System Hardware
– RBS antennas and antenna amplifiers
– Antenna amplifier theory
– Software handling/maintenance
• OMT software
• Field replaceable units
• Typical CDMA System Hardware
– Base station controller
– Radio base station
• Subscriber Devices
– CDMA mobile radios
• Block diagram
• RF transmitter, system control, man-machine interface, RF
output power control, RF receiver, RAKE receiver, system
memory, DSP, etc