EC8394 -ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

UNIT I ANALOG COMMUNICATION 9

Introduction to Communication Systems - Modulation – Types - Need for Modulation. Theory of Amplitude
Modulation - Evolution and Description of SSB Techniques - Theory of Frequency and Phase Modulation –
Comparison of Analog Communication Systems (AM – FM – PM).
UNIT II PULSE AND DATA COMMUNICATION 9
Pulse Communication: Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) – Pulse Time Modulation (PTM) – Pulse code
Modulation (PCM) - Comparison of various Pulse Communication System (PAM – PTM – PCM).
Data Communication: History of Data Communication - Standards Organizations for Data Communication-
Data Communication Circuits - Data Communication Codes - Data communication Hardware - serial and
parallel interfaces.
UNIT III DIGITAL COMMUNICATION 9
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) – Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)–Phase Shift Keying (PSK) – BPSK –
QPSK – Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) – 8 QAM – 16 QAM – Bandwidth Efficiency–
Comparison of various Digital Communication System (ASK – FSK – PSK –QAM).
UNIT IV SOURCE AND ERROR CONTROL CODING 9
Entropy, Source encoding theorem, Shannon fano coding, Huffman coding, mutual information,
channel capacity, Error Control Coding, linear block codes, cyclic codes - ARQ Techniques.
UNIT V MULTI-USER RADIO COMMUNICATION 9
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) - Code division multiple access (CDMA) –
Cellular Concept and Frequency Reuse - Channel Assignment and Handover Techniques –
Overview of Multiple Access Schemes - Satellite Communication - Bluetooth.
UNIT I – ANALOG
COMMUNICATION
 1.1 Historical Background

• Telegraph
– 1844, Samuel Morse,
• “What hath God wrought” transmitted by Morse’s electric telegraph
• Washington D.C ~ Baltimore, Maryland
• Morse code : variable-length code (a dot, a dash, a letter space, a word
space)

• Radio
– 1864, James Clerk Maxwell
• Formulated the electromagnetic theory of light
• Predicted the existence of radio waves
– 1887, Heinrich Hertz
• The existence of radio waves was confirmed experimentally
– 1894, Oliver Lodge
• Demo : wireless communication over a relatively short distance (150
yards)
 – 1901, Guglielmo Marconi
• Demo : wireless communication over a long distance (1700 miles)
– 1906, Reginald Fessenden
• Conducting the first radio broascast
– 1918, Edwin H. Armstrong
• Invented the superheterodyne radio receiver
– 1933, Edwin H. Armstrong
• Demonstrated another modulation scheme ( Frequency nodulation)

• Telephone
– 1875, Alexander Graham Bell
• Invented the telephone
– 1897, A. B. Strowger
• Devised the autiomatic step-by-step switch
• Electronics
– 1904, John Abbrose Eleming
• Invented the vacuum-tube diode
– 1906, Lee de Forest
• Invented the vacuum-tube triode
– 1948, Walter H. Brattain, William Shockley (Bell Lab.)
• Invented the transistor
– 1958, Robert Noyce
• The first silicon integrated circuit (IC) produce

• Television
– 1928, Philo T. Farnsworth
• First all-electronic television system
– 1929, Vladimir K. Zworykin
• all-electronic television system
– 1939, BBC
• Broadcasting television service on a commercial basis
• Digital Communications
– 1928, Harry Nyquist
• The theory of signal transmission in telegraphy
– 1937, Alex Reeves
• Invent pulse-code modulation
– 1958, (Bell Lab.)
• First call through a stored-program system
– 1960, (Morris, Illinois)
• The first commercial telephone service with digital switching begin.
– 1962, (Bell Lab.)
• The first T-1 carrier system transmission was installed
– 1943, D. O. North
• Matched filter for the optimum detection of a unknown signal in a
additive white noise
– 1948, Claude Shannon
• The theoretical foundation of digital communications were laid
• Computer Networks
– 1943~1946, (Moore School of Electrical Engineering of the Univ. of
Pennsylvania)
• ENIAC : first electronic digital computer
– 1950s
• Computers and terminals started communicating with each other
– 1965, Robert Lucky
• Idea of adaptive equalization
– 1982, G. Ungerboeck
• Efficient modulation techniques
– 1950~1970
• Various studies were made on computer networks
– 1971
• Advanced Research Project Agency Network(APRANET) first put into service
– 1985,
• APRANET was renamed the Internet
– 1990, Tim Berners-Lee
• Proposed a hypermedia software interface to internet (World Wide Web)
• Satellite Communications
– 1945, C. Clark
• Studied the use of satellite for communications
– 1955, John R. Pierce
• Proposed the use of satellite for communications
– 1957, (Soviet Union)
• Launched Sputnik I
– 1958, (United States)
• Launched Explorer I
– 1962, (Bell Lab.)
• Launched Telstar I
• Optical Communications
– 1966, K.C. Kao, G. A. Hockham
• Proposed the use of a clad glass fiber as a dielectric
waveguide
– 1959~1960
• The laser had been invented and developed
 1.2 Applications

– Broadcasting
• Which involves the use of a single powerful transmitter
and numerous receivers that are relatively inexpensive
to build
– point-to-point communications
• In which the communication process takes place over a
link between a single transmitter and a single receiver.
• Radio
– Broadcasting
• AM and FM radio
– The voices are transmitted from broadcasting stations that
operate in our neighborhood
• Television
– Transmits visual images and voice
– Point-to-point communication
• Satellite communication
– Built around a satellite in geostationary orbit, relies on line-of-
sight radio propagation for the operation of an uplink and a
downlink
• Communication Networks
– Consists of the interconnection of a number of routers
that are made up of intelligent processors
– Circuit switching
• Is usually controlled by a centralized hierarchical control
mechanism with knowledge of the network’s entire organization
– Packet switching
• Store and forward
– Any message longer than a specified size is subdivided prior to
transmission into segments
– The original message is reassembled at the destination on a packet-by-
packet basis
• Advantage
– When a link has traffic to sent, the link tends to be more fully utilized.
• Data Networks
– Layer
• A process or device inside a computer system that is
designed to perform a specific function
– Open systems interconnection (OSI) reference
model
• The communications and related-connection functions
are organized as a series of layers with well-defined
interfaces.
• Composed of seven layers
• Internet
– The applications are carried out independently of the technology employed to
construct the network
– By the same token, the network technology is capable of evolving without
affecting the applications.
– Internal operation of a subnet is organized in two different ways
• Connected manner : where the connections are called virtual circuits, in analogy
with physical circuits set up in a telephone system.
• Connectionless manner : where the independent packets are called datagrams, in
analogy with telegrams.
• Integration of Telephone and Internet
– VOIP’s Quality of service
• Packet loss ratio :
– the number of packets lost in transport across the network to the
total number of packets pumped into the network
• Connection delay :
– The time taken for a packet of a particular host-to-host
connection to transmit across the network
– IN future
• VOIP will replace private branch exchanges (PBXs)
• If the loading is always low and response time is fast, VOIP
telephony may become mainstream and widespread
• Data Storage
– The digital domain is preferred over the analog domain for the
storage of audio and video signals for the the following
compelling reasons
1) The quality of a digitized audio/video signal, measured in terms of
frequency response, linearity, and noise, is determined by the digital-
to-analog conversion (DAC) process, the parameterization of which is
under the designer’s control.
2) Once the audio/video signal is digitized, we can make use of well-
developed and powerful encoding techniques for data compression to
reduce bandwidth, and error-control coding to provide protection
against the possibility of making errors in the course of storage.
3) For most practical applications, the digital storage of audio and video
signals does not degrade with time.
4) Continued improvements in the fabrication of integrated circuits used
to build CDs and DVDs ensure the ever-increasing cost-effectiveness
of these digital storage devices.
 1.3 Primary Resources and Operational Requirements

• The systems are designed to provide for the efficient

utilization of the two primary communication resources
– Transmitted power
• The average power of the transmitted signal
– Channel bandwidth
• The width of the passband of the channel

– Classify communication channel

• Power-limited channel
– Wireless channels
– Satellite channels
– Deep-space links
• Band-limited channel
– Telephone channels
– Television channels
– The design of a communication system boils down
to a tradeoff between signal-to-noise ratio and
channel bandwidth
– Improve system performance method
• Signal-to-noise ratio is increased to accommodate a
limitation imposed on channel bandwidth
• Channel bandwidth is increased to accommodate a
limitation imposed on signal-to-noise ratio.
 1.4 Understanding Theories of Communication Systems

• Modulation Theory
– Sinusoidal carrier wave
• Whose amplitude, phase, or frequency is the parameter
chosen for modification by the information-bearing signal
– Periodic sequence of pulses
• Whose amplitude, width, or position is the parameter chosen
for modification by the information-bearing signal

– The issues in modulation theory

• Time-domain description of the modulation signal.
• Frequency-domain description of the modulated signal
• Detection of the original information-bearing signal and
evaluation of the effect of noise on the receiver.
• Fourier Analysis
– Fourier analysis provides the mathematical basis for evaluating
the following issues
• Frequency-domain description of a modulated signal, including its
transmission bandwidth
• Transmission of a signal through a linear system exemplified by a
communication channel or filter
• Correlation between a pair of signals

• Detection Theory
– Signal-detection problem
• The presence of noise
• Factors such as the unknown phase-shift introduced into the carrier
wave due to transmission of the sinusoidally modulated signal over
the channel
 – In digital communications, we look at
• The average probability of symbol error at the receiver
output
• The issue of dealing with uncontrollable factors
• Comparison of one digital modulation scheme against
another.

• Probability Theory and Random Processes

– Probability theory for describing the behavior of
randomly occurring events in mathematical terms
– Statistical characterization of random signals and
noise.
 1.5 Concluding Remarks

• Communication systems encompass many and highly diverse applications

– Radios, television, wireless communications, satellite communications, deep-
space communications, telephony, data networks, Internet, and quite a few
others
• Digital communication has established itself as the dominant form of
communication. Much of the progress that we have witnessed in the
advancement of digital communication systems can be traced to certain
enabling theories and technologies.

• The study of communication systems is a dynamic discipline, continually

evolving by exploiting new technological innovations in other disciplines and
responding to new societal needs.

• Last but by no means least, communication systems touch out daily lives
both at home and in the workplace, and our lives would be much poorer
without the wide availability of communication devices that we take for
granted.
 Amplitude modulation
Amplitude modulation is the simplest of the three to understand. The
transmitter just uses the information signal, Vm(t) to vary the amplitude of
the carrier, Vco to produce a modulated signal, VAM(t).
Here are the three signals in mathematical form:
Information: Vm(t)
Carrier: Vc(t) = Vco sin (2 p fc t + f )
AM: VAM(t) = { Vco + Vm(t) }sin (2 p fc t + f)
Here, we see that the amplitude term has been replaced by the
combination of the original amplitude plus the information signal.
 Amplitude Modulation
The amount of modulation depends on the amplitude of the information
signal.
This is usually expressed as a ratio of the maximum information signal to
the amplitude of the carrier.
Modulation Index m = MAX(Vm(t) )/ Vco.
If the information signal is also a simple sine wave, the modulation index
will be m = Vmo/Vco.
The interpretation of the modulation index, m, may be expressed as: The
fraction (percentage if multiplied by 100) of the carrier amplitude that it
varies by.
If m =0.5, the carrier amplitude varies by 50 % above and below its
original value. If m= 1.0 then it varies by 100%.
 Modulation: Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK)
ASK encodes digital data by modulating the carrier's amplitude between two
or more levels. Suppose a signal with amplitude 1 represents a binary 0 and
a signal with amplitude 2 represents a binary 1. AM is more sensitive to
noise than other modulation techniques => AM is not widely used in data
transmission
.

 
A period is the amount of time before a wave repeats itself.
                                                 
                            
Modulation: Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK)
Encodes digital data by modulating the carrier's frequency between two or
more values. For example, a binary 0 would be one frequency (or group of
frequencies) and a binary 1 would be some other frequency (or group of
frequencies). FSK is less susceptible to corruption than ASK. Many
modems use FSK to convert digital data to analogue signals.
 Modulation: Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
Phase-shift keying encodes digital data by shifting the phase of the
carrier. PSK-encoded data is highly resistant to corruption.
 Demodulation

Demodulation is the process of extracting the digital information from

the carrier.
 Multiplexing

Two type of multiplexing:

• TDM - used in digital transmission
• FDM - used in analogue transmission
 Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
In TDM system, the time of one channel is divided (usually evenly)
among n users. Each user appears to have full channel for total time
divided by n (time/n).
Time division is the only multiplexing technique that can be used in a
baseband line.
Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
In frequency division multiplexing, the frequency of one channel is divided
(usually evenly) among n users. It allows multiple, simultaneous
transmissions. Bandwidth will be wasted if any user does not have any
thing to send. Other users cannot take the advantage of additional
available bandwidth.
 Digital Signaling:Baseband &
Broadband

We can utilize potentially high bandwidth in one of the two ways:

Baseband mode => all the available bandwidth is used to derive
a single high bit rate (10 Mbps or higher)
transmission path (channel).
Broadband mode => the available bandwidth is divided to derive
a number of lower bandwidth subchannels
(and hence transmission paths) on one cable.
 Baseband mode
Baseband system uses direct digital signaling. The digital signal fully
occupies the cable, which constitutes a single channel. On a typical
baseband network, each device transmits bi-directionally.
Baseband networks have a limited range, due to attenuation, and noise.
Repeaters may be used to extend the length of a baseband system, and
must use 50-ohm cable.
 Broadband mode

Broadband systems use analog signaling with the use

of high frequency carrier, which is modulated with the
digital signals, video and sound. The transmitting
device uses different carrier frequency than the
receiving device. The transmission is unidirectional
with 75-ohm coaxial cable. Frequency-Division
Multiplexing (FDM) is used in Broadband
transmission. Each channel centers on a different
carrier frequency. For example, on a Cable TV, with a
bandwidth of 500 MHz can carry more than 80
television channels (of 6-MHz bandwidth each).
Further multiplexed within each 6-MHz band are the
 Digitization

Analogue voice transmission is limited to a maximum bandwidth

of less than 4KHz. To convert such signals into digital form, their amplitude
must be sampled at a minimum rate of twice the highest frequency
component. Hence to convert a 4KHz voice signal into
digital form, it must be sampled at 8000 times per second.
 Digitization

The amplitude of each pulse being equal to the amplitude of the original
analogue signal at the sampling instant. The resulting signal is thus known as a
pulse amplitude modulated or PAM signal.
 Digitization

• The PAM signal is still analogue since its amplitude can vary over
the full amplitude range.
• It is converted into an all-digital form by quantizing each pulse
• into its equivalent binary form.
• Eight binary digits (bits) are used to quantize each PAM signal
which include one bit to indicate the sign of the signal (positive
or negative).
• This means 256 distinct levels are used. 00 -> FF = 256 distinct
levels.
The resulting digital signal has a bit rate of 64000
= 8 * 8000 bits per second
Digitization
 Digital encoding
Most LANS transmit digital data in digital signals. To do this, transmitter
and receiver must accurately determine when each signal element occurs
and what its value is. Clock must be used in which the sender and the
receiver agree on.
Lots of digital encoding technique exists, here are few of them:

UNIPOLAR:
Bits are transmitted as 힕 for binary 0 and 0V as binary 1. (old
teletype machine)
Digital encoding

POLAR:
Same as RS-232-C standard.

                                        
                     
 Digital encoding
MANCHESTER Coding:

High-to-Low mid-bit transition for 0 input with the clock, and low-to-
high mid-bit transition for 1 input with the clock.(input means the raw
signal). Both transitions must be synchronized with the clock between
the sender and. the receiver

                                        
                     

Manchester Coding is used in Ethernet LANs

 Digital encoding
Differential Manchester Coding:
Encoding is done by the presence of a transition for binary 0, and the
lack (absence) of a transition as binary 1. Encoding starts at the
beginning of the bit cell, if input is zero, it will be represented with a
transition, and at mid-bit cell encoding follows the clock. If input
signal starts with binary 1, then no transition is encoded, but it follows
.
the clock at mid-bit cell