Single phase, AC circuits, basics - RMS and

average quantities
Introduction

• The current are steady and in one direction- DC

• Use of d.c is limited to a few applications-
• e.g. charging of batteries, electroplating, electric
traction e.t.c.,
• For large scale power distribution there are, however,
many advantages in using a.c.
Generation of Alternating Voltages and Currents

• Alternating voltage may be generated by rotating a coil in a magnetic

field (or) by rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil.
• First case-small a.c generators and second case- for large a.c generators.
• In either case, the generated voltage will be sinusoidal wave form.
The value of the voltage generated depends

– Number of turns in the coil

– Strength of the field

– and the speed at which the coil or magnetic field

rotates.
Equations of the alternating voltages and currents

• Consider a
rectangular coil
having N turns and
rotating in a uniform
magnetic field with
an angular velocity of
ω radian/second.
• Time be measured from the X-axis.
• Maximum flux Φm is linked with the coil, when its
plane coincides with the X-axis.
• In time t seconds, this coil rotates through an angle
θ = ω t.
• In this deflected position, the component of the flux
which is perpendicular to the plane of the coil, is

Φ = Φm cos ω t.

Hence, flux linkages of the coil at any time are

N Φ = N Φm cos ω t.
• According to Faraday’s Laws of electromagnetic
Induction,
– the e.m.f. induced in the coil is given by the
rate of change of flux-linkages of the coil.

• Hence, the value of the induced e.m.f. at this

instant (i.e. When θ = ω t) or the instantaneous
value of the induced e.m.f. is
Similarly, the equation of induced alternating current is

i = Im sin ω t ... (iv)

provided the coil circuit has been closed through a

resistive load.

ω = 2πf

where f is the frequency of rotation of the coil, the

equations of the voltage and current can be written as
 Important a.c. terminology
• Wave form
• Instantaneous value
• Cycle
• Alternation
• Time period
• Frequency
• Amplitude
 Wave form

• The shape of the curve obtained by plotting

the instantaneous values of voltage or current
as ordinate against time as abcissa is called
waveform or wave shape.
 Instantaneous value
• The value of an alternating quantity at any instant

• Inst. Voltage or current are Represented by e or i.

• Ex. Inst. Value of voltage at 00, 900 and 2700

are 0, +Em, -Em
 Cycle

• One complete set of positive and negative

values of alternating quantity is known as cycle.

• A cycle may also be sometimes specified in

terms of angular measure.

• In that case, one complete cycle is said to

spread over 360º or 2π radians.
 Alternation

• One half of an alternating quantity is called an

alternation.

• An alternation spans 1800 electrical.

 Time period

• The time taken by an alternating quantity to

complete one cycle is called its time period T.

• (Ex)
a 50-Hz alternating current has a time period
of 1/50 second.
 Frequency
• The number of cycle that occur in one second is called
frequency (f) of the alternating quantity.

• Measured in cycles/sec (c/s) or Herz (Hz).

• One Herz is equal to 1 c/s.

• Frequency of power system is low –

• 50 c/s or 50 Hz, ie. 50 cycles per second.
 Amplitude
• The maximum value (positive or negative)
attained by an alternating quantity is called
amplitude or peak value.

• The amplitude of an alternating voltage or

current is designed by Em (or) Vm or Im
 Important relations
• Time period and frequency

• Angular velocity and frequency

• Frequency and speed

 Time period and frequency
• Consider an alternating quantity having a
frequency of f c/s and time period T second.

• Time taken to complete f cycles = 1 sec

• Time taken to complete 1 cycle = 1/f sec.

• But time taken to complete one cycle is the time

period T.
T = 1/f (or) f = 1/T
 Angular velocity and frequency
• Coil is rotating with an angular velocity of
ω rad/sec.

• In one revolution of the coil, the angle turned is 2π

radians and the voltage wave completes 1 cycle.

• The time taken to complete one cycle is the time

period T of the alternating voltage.
• Angular velocity,
ω = Angle turned = 2π
Time taken T

ω = 2πf
 Frequency and speed
• Consider a coil rotating at a speed of N rpm in
the field of P poles.

• As the coil moves past a north and south pole,

one complete cycle is generated.

• In one revolution of the coil P/2 cycles will be

generated.
• Frequency, f = No. of cycles/sec

• f = (No. of cycles / revolution) x

(No. of revolution /sec)
= P x N = PN
2 60 120
(eg) an a.c generator having 10 poles and running at
600 rpm will generate alternating voltage and
current whose frequency is
f = 10 x 600 = 50 Hz
120
Different forms of alternating voltage

• Standard form of an alternating voltage is

e = Em sin θ = Em sin ωt

= Em sin 2πft = Em sin 2π t

T
• Points
i. The maximum value of alternating voltage is
given by the co-efficient of sine of the time angle
Maximum value of voltage,
Em = co-efficient of sine of time angle

ii. The frequency f of alternating voltage is given by

dividing the co-efficient of time in the angle by
2π
Frequency , f = Co-efficient of time in the angle
2π
 Value of alternating voltage and current
• In d.c system, voltage and current are constant.
• - No problem of specifying their magnitudes.

• In a.c system, voltage and current varies from

instant to instant.
• Three ways of expressing
• i. peak value
• ii. Average value or Mean value
• iii. R.M.S value or effective value
 Average value
• The arithmetic average of all the values of an alternating
quantity over one cycle.

• Average value = Area under the curve

Base
i. If symmetrical waves, the average value over one cycle
is zero. Positive and negative area are equal and so net
area is zero.

But average value of positive or negative half is not zero.

Average value of a symmetrical wave =
Area of one alternation
Base length of one alternation

= sum of mid-ordinates over one alternation

No. of mid-ordinates
(eg) an alternating voltage of 10 volts peak
varies over one half cycle :
 
Voltage 6.2V 11.8V 16.2V 19.0V 20.0V 19.0V 16.2V 11.8V 6.2V 0V

Angle 18o 36o 54o 72o 90o 108o 126o 144o 162o 180o

The Average voltage value is therefore

calculated as:

Then the Average Voltage value using the

graphical method is given as: 12.64 Volts.
ii. Unsymmetrical waves, the average value is
taken over the full cycle.

Average value of an unsymmetrical wave =

Area over one cycle

Base length of 1 cycle
 Average value of sinusoidal current

Equation for an alternating current varying

sinusoidally
I = Im sin θ
• Consider an elementary strip of width dθ in the first half-cycle wave.
• Let i be the mid-ordinate of the
strip.
• Area of the strip = i dθ
• Area of half-cycle

•
• Average value Iav =
• Area of half-cycle = 2 Im
Base length of half cycle π

(or) Iav = 0.637 Im

Alternating voltage Eav = 0.637 Em

 R.M.S or Effective value

• The effective or R.M.S value of an alternating current

is that steady current (d.c) which when flowing
through a given resistance for a given time produces
the same amount of heat as produced by the
alternating current when flowing through the same
resistance for the same time.
• Consider the half-cycle of an non-sinusoidal alternating current I flowing through
a resistance R for t seconds.

• Divide the time t in n equal intervals of time, each of duration t/n second.

• Let the mid-ordinates be i1, i2, i3, …. in.

• Each current i1, i2, i3, …. In will produce heating effect when passed through the
resistance R.
 R.M.S. value of sinusoidal current

• Consider an
elementary strip of
width dθ in the first
half-cycle of the
squared wave.

• Let I2 be the mid-

ordinate of the strip.
• Area of the strip =
i2dθ
 Form factor and peak factor

• Definite relation among the peak value, average

value and r.m.s. value of an alternating quantity.

• Form factor
– The ratio of r.m.s value to the average value of an
alternating quantity.

• Form factor = R.M.S value

» average value
–
• For sinusoidal voltage or current

• Form factor = 0.707x Max. value = 1.11

0.637 x Max. value
 Peak factor

• The ratio of maximum value to the r.m.s value

of an alternating quantity

• Peak factor = Max. value

• R.M.S value
• For sinusoidal voltage of current
• Max. value = 1.414
• 0.707 x Max.value