Unit 5 Perception and Movement

Unit 5
Perception and
movement
(Sensory organs and the
musculoskeletal systems)
Biology and Geology

3º ESO
1 Sensory receptors and organs
1.1 Living things detect changes
Through the process of interaction, human beings
perceive information from the world around them or
from inside their own body, and respond to any
change that occurs.
The interaction process
Stimuli Coordination Effector

Receptors
centres
1.1 Living things detect changes
Stimuli Coordination Effectors
Receptors
centres
Muscles and
Nervous and
glands
endocrine systems
Sensory receptors are essential for us to respond correctly

to our environment.
These receptors are specialised neurons
that detect stimuli.
Our muscles and glands (effectors) then carry out orders

from the nervous system.
1.2 Sensory receptors
Receptors generate a nerve impulse. This electrical signal
travels from the nerve to the brain. When the impulses
reach the brain, the organism perceives it as a sensation
and turns into a perception.
1.2 Sensory receptors
Types of receptors
 Internal receptors: Perceive changes inside the body. They are
spread all over the body and provide information about its
general condition and state. E.g. Sugar levels in blood
 External or sensory receptors: Perceive stimuli in the external
environment. Depending on the type of stimulus they can
perceive are classifies as:
• Mechanoreceptors: perceive mechanical stimuli (pressure,
vibration, movement)
• Thermoreceptors: perceive changes in temperature
• Chemoreceptors: detect chemical substances in the air, water, etc.
• Nociceptors: perceive pain
• Photoreceptors: detect light stimuli. (they are light-sensitive)
1.3 Sense of smell
Olfactory receptors are chemoreceptors that can
detect chemical stimuli, such as volatile or gaseous
substances dissolved in the air or in food.
Olfactory receptors are located in
in the olfactory epithelium at the
top of the nasal cavity.
1.3 Sense of smell
How odours reach the brain
1. The volatile or gaseous substances in the air

enter the nasal passages.
2. The olfactory receptors, which are
located in the upper lining of the nasal
passages, called the olfactory epithelium or
olfactory mucosa, perceive the substances.
The olfactory mucosa also contains glands that secrete mucus.
We can only smell substances if they are dissolved in mucus
and in sufficient concentration.
1.3 Sense of smell
How odours reach the brain
3. When the olfactory receptors are stimulated, they
send nerves impulses through the olfactory nerve to the
brain, which interprets the information and identifies
the smell.
1.3 Sense of smell
The human body can detect around 3,000 odours,
which are thought to be the result of the combination
of the basic odours: camphor (alcanfor), musk (almizcle),
flowers, minty (mentolado), ether (éter), acre (agrio, amargo) and
rotten (podrido).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
snJnO6OpjCs
dIDBG-UPRUI
1.4 Sense of taste
Taste receptors, also known as gustatory cells, are
chemoreceptors which are sensitive to the chemical
substances of food dissolved in saliva.
Gustatory cells are located inside a series of

bulb-shaped structures called taste buds.
Taste buds are located on the palate,

pharynx and, mainly, the tongue.
The tongue contains a series of small
bumps called papillae.
1.4 Sense of taste
Each bud detects one of the five basic tastes: sweet, salty,
bitter (amargo), sour (ácido, ágrio) and umami.
.
Although there are many
different tastes, they are all
the result of a combination
of these five basic tastes
These days, we know that the place where we

can savour each taste is not fixed, but rather
receptors for all the basis taste are located across
the surface of the tongue (although some are
more predominant in certain areas then others).
1.4 Sense of taste
When gustatory receptors are stimulated by
the chemical substances dissolved in saliva,
send nerves impulses through the gustatory
nerve to the brain, which interprets and
identifies tastes.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KuP-Kj7MHes
The senses of smell and taste work

together. Our ability to enjoy different
tastes when we eat is because we smell
and taste at the same time. This sensation
is called flavour.
1.5 Sense of touch: Skin.
There are different types of touch receptors:
• Thermoreceptors: detect heat and cold.
• Mechanoreceptors: detect contact and pressure
• Nociceptors: perceive pain.
Touch receptors are modified

nerve endings surround by a
protective capsule of connective
tissue. The pain receptors are
free nerve endings.
Together, all these sensations constitute our sense of touch.

Touch receptors are located in the skin and are not
distributed in a uniform manner.
Some parts of our body are more

sensitive than others, for
example pressure receptors are
concentrated on the palms of our
hands and the soles of our feet.
And fine touch receptors are
more abundant in the fingertips.
When touch receptors are stimulated, they send nerves
impulses through different nerves to the brain, where
they are interpreted and identified.
2 Sensory organs: the eye
The eye is the organ for our sense of sight.
The receptors located in the eyes
(photoreceptors) perceive light and colour.
The human eye has two parts:

 The eyeball, which is located in a cavity
in the skull called orbit.
 The auxiliary structures, which protect
the eyeball and enable it to move.
• Eyebrows
• Eyelids
• Eye muscles
• Lacrimal glands
 The auxiliary structures
 The eyeball
It is a spherical organ filled with fluids called aqueous
humour and vitreous humour, which help it to
maintain its shape.
It has three layers or membranes:
• The sclera (outer layer)
• The choroid (intermediate layer)
• The retina (internal layer)
 The eyeball
• Sclera. This is the hard, external layer of the eyeball.
It is white, opaque and fibrous.
The front part of this layer is
transparent and is called the cornea,
which helps refract light within the eye.
The cornea is covered by a thin protective membrane
called the conjunctiva
 The eyeball
• Choroid or intermediate layer, which is darker and
contains many blood vessels.
The front of this layer contains the iris
(with a different colour in each
person). The iris has an orifice in it,
known as the pupil, which opens or
closes depending on the amount of
light reaching the eye.
Behind the iris is the lens which changes
shape in order to focus the image receives
onto the retina.
 The eyeball
• Retina is the internal layer of the eye. It contains two
types of photoreceptors: rods and cones.
 Rods are stimulated by any type of visible

light, but they do not differentiate colours.
 Cones are capable of perceiving colours but
they need more light in order to do so.
Explain why, when we find ourselves in a
place with very little light, it is difficult to
differentiate the colour of objects.
 The eyeball
 The eyeball
 The eyeball
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Y-HghqvGtg
 How the eyes work
1. When you look at an object, the light enters
the eye through the cornea.
From the cornea, the light passes through the
pupil.
The amount of light passing through the pupil is regulated by
the iris, which changes the size of the pupil depending on
how bright the light is.
If it is too bright, it can cause injuries in
photoreceptors cells, and if it is too dark,
the process of sight will not take place.
2. From the pupil, the light then hits the lens, which
focuses light rays onto the retina.
Focus is achieved by modifying the lens. The ability of the
lens to change shape to see things at different distance is
called accommodation.
Accommodation is regulated by the ciliary muscles.
Accommodation
• When the eye focuses on a nearby object, the ciliary
muscles contracts and the lens widen (become more
spherical).
• When the eye focuses on a distant object, the ciliary
muscles relax and the lens flattens (becomes egg-
shape).
3. Finally, light reaches the retina, where the
photoreceptors (rods and cones) are stimulated.
Then, the cones and rods will produce a nervous impulse
that will be carried to the brain by the optic nerve.
2 Sensory organs: the eye https://www.youtube.com/wa
tch?v=gBdyU1b0ADQ
https://www.youtube.com/wa
 How the eyes work tch?v=nbwPPcwknPU
In the brain the signals of light, dark and colours are assembled
into images (our vision).
The image that forms in the retina is inverted,
but the brain corrects this and allows us to see
the image the right way up.
Sight in humans is stereoscopic, which means it can perceive

objects in three dimensions (their size, theirs shape and their
distance away).
This is possible because images proceeding
from both eyes reach the brain and our brain
makes them overlap, giving the sensation of
three-dimensional space.
Activity
Order the following parts of the ocular globe according
to the path that light follows as it enters the eye:
lens, retina, pupil, cornea, vitreous humour and aqueous
humour.
 Problems with eyesight
• Myopia (Near-sightedness)
Myopia can be corrected with glasses,

contact lenses or refractive surgery
• Hypermetropia (Far-sightedness)
Hypermetropia can be corrected with

eyeglasses, contact lenses, or surgery.
• Astigmatism
• Presbyopia: This is the result of a gradual loss of the
eye´s ability to focus and produce a clear image of
nearby objects on the retina.
Refractive Surgery
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9ZzX_YTziZs
Activity
• Colour blindness: This is a congenital disease characterised
by an inability to distinguish certain colours.
https://enchroma.com/pages/color-
blindness-test#&ui-state=dialog
OlK5WX6WgWs
 Diseases
• Conjunctivitis: Inflammation of the conjunctiva of the
eye as a result of an infection or an allergy.
• Cataracts: The lens become opaque blocking the passage

of light.
3 Sensory organs: the ear
The ear has two functions:
• Detecting sounds
• Helping with balance and body position
The receptors in our ears are mechanoreceptors

responsible for either hearing or balance.
 Hearing receptors are called auditory cells
and are sensitive to vibrations in the air
(sound waves).
 Balance receptors are called balance cells
and are sensitive to movement.
 Structures of the ear
The ears are the sensory organs located
inside the cavities of the temporal bones,
which are found in areas on both sides of
the head called the temple.
The human ear is divided into three parts:

- The outer ear
- The middle ear
- The inner ear
• Outer ear. This is made up of the visible, fleshy part
called the pinna (or auricle), and the ear canal.
The ear canal or auditory canal, penetrates
the bone and has elastic membrane at the
end called the eardrum. In this duct there
are glands that secrete protective wax.
• Middle ear. It starts at the eardrum and reaches
certain membranes called the oval window and the
round window.
It contains three small bones called ossicles:

the hammer (or malleus) , anvil (or incus) and
stirrup (or stapes). The hammer rests on the
eardrum and the stirrup on the oval window.
• Inner ear. It is formed by the bony and membranous
labyrinths.
Separating the two labyrinths there is

a fluid, perilymph, and inside the
membranous labyrinth there is
another type of fluid, endolymph.
• Inner ear
The bony labyrinth is a series of bony cavities within
the temporal bone. It consists of three parts:
• The cochlea, which contains the hearing
receptors cells.
• Vestibule (oval cavity)
• The three semi-circular canals, which
contain the balance cells.
• Inner ear
The membranous labyrinth is contained within the bony
labyrinth and consists of the utricle, the saccule, and the
semicircular ducts.
The vestibular system is

composed of three
semicircular canals and two
vesicles: utricle and saccule.
 How the ear works
Hearing mechanism
Vibrations in molecules found in the air or any
other object produce sound waves.
When these waves reach the eardrum, it vibrates and
transmits the vibration through to the ossicles (hammer,
anvil and stirrup)
The last bone, the stirrup,
transfers the vibration to the oval
window causing the fluid inside
the cochlea to vibrate.
3 Sensory organs: the ear https://www.youtube.com/w
 How the ear works atch?v=pCCcFDoyBxM
https://www.youtube.com/
Hearing mechanism watch?v=sSgZXrdlIlM
As a consequence of this vibration the hair cell receptors

inside the cochlea, which form the organ of Corti, move and
are stimulated.
A nervous impulse is created which travels

through the auditory nerve to the brain
where the information is interpreted (it is
transformed into sounds)
3 Sensory organs: the ear https://www.youtube.com/w
atch?v=-jc4gkN8w7o
https://www.youtube.com
 How the ear works /watch?v=dSHnGO9qGsE
Balance mechanism
The sensory balance cells are located in the
semicircular canals and the cavities found at
their base (saccule and utricle)
Static balance is detected by the utricle and
saccule, while the dynamic balance is detected
by the semicircular canals.
When we move, the fluid inside these structures also moves

and stimulates the balance cells, which send serves impulses
through the vestibular nerve to the brain, which provides us
with the information about our body´s position.
 How the ear works
Balance mechanism
When our sense of balance is overstimulated, vertigo can
occur. This is an unpleasant sensation causing a lack of
balance and the disorienting perception that stationary
objects are actually moving.
1. Why can the eardrum burst when there is an extremely loud
sound?
2. Explain what would happen if one of the bones of the middle
ear happened to break?
3. If you are exposed to a strong explosion. It´s advisable to keep
your mouth open. Why?
4. Can someone that has perfectly healthy ears be deaf?
5. Explain why after spinning at speed, once we have stopped,
we still have the sensation of spinning.
4 The musculoskeletal system
The musculoskeletal system (also known
as locomotor system) is what moves the
human body. It is made up of bones,
skeletal muscles and tendons.
Movement is the result of the musculoskeletal and nervous

systems working together. The nervous system send signals
to the muscles, causing them to contract.
Because muscles respond to

signals from the nervous system,
they are known as effectors.
Our body movements are possible due to the relationship
between the muscles (active) and the bones (passive).
The muscles are responsible for changing the position of
bones and, creating movement.
The muscular The skeletal

system system
4.1 The muscular system: muscles
There are three types of muscles, which are made up of
different types of muscle cells, also called muscle fibres:
• Skeletal muscles. These muscles join with
bones and are responsible for the movements
of the bones. They contract voluntarily.
• Smooth muscles. These are part of the internal
organs. Their contraction is involuntary.
• Cardiac muscle. It only exists in the heart. It is
responsible for keeping the heart pumping and
blood circulating around the body. Their
contraction is involuntary.
Muscle contraction
Inside muscle fibres, there are protein filaments (actin and
myosin filaments) that change the shape of the cell, causing
the muscles to contract or relax.
When a nerve impulse reaches
the muscle fibres, it stimulates
a reaction between the actin
and myosin filaments.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ousflrOzQHc
Muscles contract by widening and shortening their muscle fibres.

Bones and joints
Muscles cannot produce movement on their own. In order
to do so, they need the help of joints and bones.
Bones and joints can move because are
connected to the skeletal muscles by tendons.
Muscle contraction pulls a tendon, which then pulls
the bone. This gives us movement.
When the
muscle contracts
Tendons are made of thick they transmit
fibres of collagen, a protein that the movement
to the bone.
is very resistant and elastic.
Antagonist muscles
A single muscle can move a bone or part of the body, such as the
forearm. However, it does not make the bone or body part
return to its original position. To do this, two antagonist muscles
working together are needed (when one contracts, the other
one relaxes)
Biceps and triceps are the muscles that move the arm backwards
and forwards. There are two stages to the movement:
• Contraction of the biceps, which
pulls the forearm up.
• Contraction of the triceps, which
extends the arm.
Type of muscles according to shape
• Long or fusiform like biceps and triceps (These
normally play a role in the movement of the body).
• Short like the latissimus dorsi in the back.
• Flat like abdominal muscles (These generally cover
and protect organs)
• Fan-shape like the pectorals.
• Circular like the sphincter muscles (These close or
open a cavity or duct)
• Orbicular like the muscles of the lips.
Type of muscles according to movement
• Flexors and extensors: They allow us to flex and
extend part of our body. Examples are the biceps
and triceps in the arm, or the quadriceps and biceps
femoris in the leg.
• Pronators and supinators: They make movement
that rotate outwards or inward. Examples are the
pronator teres and brachioradialis in the forearm.
• Adductors and abductors: They make movements
towards or away from the midline of the body.
Examples are those that bring the leg together, or
spread them apart.
4.2 The skeletal system: bones
The adult human skeleton is made up of 206 bones,
divided in two parts:
• The axial skeleton is made up of
the bones of the head and trunk.
• The appendicular skeleton is
made up of the bones of the
extremities, such as the
shoulders, pelvis, arms and legs.
The skeleton has different functions:
• It supports the weight of the body.
• It protects the organs and soft body parts,
such as the brain, spinal cord, lungs and heart.
• The bones stores calcium, which is necessary for nerve
impulses, muscle contraction and blood clotting.
• The epiphysis, the rounded end of a
long bone, produces different types
of blood cells. This function is called
hematopoiesis.
Bones are formed of bone tissue, which can be
of two types: spongy bone that presents cavities
and compact bone that has no internal spaces.
The internal structure of bones is made up of:
• Osteocytes.
• Extracellular matrix, which contains
mineral salts that makes the bones hard.
• Collagen fibres, that give bones their
elasticity and strength.
• Cartilage, which is located at the ends of
bones to avoid friction. https://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=V6IRrvCUNU8
Type of bones according to shape
 Long bones: The main, cylindrical shaft of these bones is
called the diaphysis, which contain compact bone tissue,
and each of the ends is called the epiphysis, which
contain spongy bone tissue.
These bones support and move the body. Examples of long

bones are the femur, the radius, the tibia and the fibula.
 Short bones: Characterised by their irregular, almost
cubic shape. They are made up of spongy bone tissue
(inside), with a thin outer layer of compact bone tissue.
The bones of the hands and feet are examples of short
bones.
 Flat bones:These are plate-shaped. They are formed by
an inner layer of bone tissue surrounded by two layers
of compact bone tissue.
The function of this bone type is protective. Examples
include the skull bone, shoulder blade, the ribs and the
pelvic region.
 Irregular bones: These bones have specialised
shapes. Examples include the vertebra and
ossicles.
 Sesamoid bones: These are short, rounded

bones. They are found at joints and help
increase the leverage of the muscles. The
kneecap (patella) is the biggest sesamoid
bone.
Type of joints
Joints are the places where bones meet.
We can classify joints according to the

movements they allow:
 Fixed: These joints connect bones that are not
fused in place, but they are connected with
fibrous tissue that impedes their movement.
(These joints stop the movement of bones).
Examples are the joints of the cranium bones.
Type of joints
 Semi-flexible: These only allow limited movement of the
bones. Examples are the bones of the spinal column
(vertebra are connected by small disc of cartilage that
allow for a small amount of movement.
Type of joints
 Flexible: These allow bones to move. They contain a
lubricating liquid, synovial fluid, which stop the bones
from grinding against each other. Ligaments form the
actual joint connections. Examples are elbows, shoulders,
wrists, ankles and knees.
.
Ligaments
Ligaments are made up of soft, dense connective tissue
and connect the bones in joints.
Let´s study the principal
bones in the human skeleton
Bones
You will earn points if you identify correctly
in the skeleton:
• The specific bone that appears on the card
• An example of type of bone (long, short, flat, etc.)
• A specific type of joint: fixed, semi-flexible, flexible
100% correct  10 points

90 % correct  9 points
…..
10 % correct  1 point
0 % correct  0 points

Unit 5 Perception and Movement

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Unit 5

Biology and Geology

Stimuli Coordination Effector

Sensory receptors are essential for us to respond correctly

Our muscles and glands (effectors) then carry out orders

1. The volatile or gaseous substances in the air

Gustatory cells are located inside a series of

Taste buds are located on the palate,

These days, we know that the place where we

The senses of smell and taste work

Touch receptors are modified

Together, all these sensations constitute our sense of touch.

Some parts of our body are more

The human eye has two parts:

 Rods are stimulated by any type of visible

Sight in humans is stereoscopic, which means it can perceive

Myopia can be corrected with glasses,

Hypermetropia can be corrected with

• Cataracts: The lens become opaque blocking the passage

The receptors in our ears are mechanoreceptors

The human ear is divided into three parts:

It contains three small bones called ossicles:

Separating the two labyrinths there is

The vestibular system is

As a consequence of this vibration the hair cell receptors

A nervous impulse is created which travels

When we move, the fluid inside these structures also moves

Movement is the result of the musculoskeletal and nervous

Because muscles respond to

The muscular The skeletal

Muscles contract by widening and shortening their muscle fibres.

These bones support and move the body. Examples of long

 Sesamoid bones: These are short, rounded

We can classify joints according to the

100% correct  10 points

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