Module 2

Light Wave Communication

 Topics
• Transmission characteristics
• Attenuation – absorption losses – scattering losses –
bend loss
• Dispersion- chromatic dispersion – intermodal dispersion
• Optical fiber cables – cable design
• Optic fibre connections – fibre alignment and joint loss
• splicing techniques
• optical fibre connectors
• fiber couplers
 Fusion Splicing
There are several reasons for splicing a fiber cable,
these include:
To join two fibers due to a breakage.
To connect some of the cores straight through a
patch cabinet.
To extend a cable run.
To reduce losses, a fusion splice has much lower
losses than two connectorized cables joined
through a coupler.
Or to attach a pre-terminated pigtail.
 Basic Steps
There are four basic steps to fusion splicing

1 - Strip back all coatings down to the bare fibers

and clean using isopropyl alcohol.

2 - Cleave the fibers using a precision cleaving

tool and put the heat shrink tube on to one of
the ends.

3 - Fuse the fibers together in the fusion splicer.

4 - Put the heat shrink protector on the fiber

joint.
 Stripping
• Strip back the external sheathing of the
cable using a rotary stripping tool. Cut
back the aramid strength member using
ceramic or kevlar scissors.

• Strip the primary buffer from the fiber using fiber strippers
not ordinary wire strippers. Do this a small section at a time
to prevent the fiber breaking, about 10mm (3/8 in) on each
cut is fine until you get used to it. Strip back about 35mm
(1.5 in).

•Clean the bare fiber with a lint free wipe and isopropyl alcohol, it
will "squeak" when it is clean.
Fiber Exposed - the outer PVC jacket, the
Cladding, and the Core
 Cleaving
• The cleaver first scores the fiber and
then pulls the fiber apart to make a
clean break. It is important that the the
ends are smooth and perpendicular to
get a good joint, this is why a hand held
cleaver will not do.

• Basically the operation consists of putting the fiber into

the groove and clamping, then close the lid and press
the lever
 The Fusion Process
• Once the fiber ends are prepared they
are placed in the fusion splicer. Press the
button and the machine takes care of the
rest of the fusion process automatically

• First the two fibers are aligned, you can see this on the photo
where a much magnified image shows the two fiber ends. The
display also shows how well the cleaver does its job of producing a
perfect 90 degree cut.
• Once the fibers are aligned
the splicer fires an electric
arc between the two ends
which melts them
immediately and pushes
them together, or fuses
them into one piece of fiber.
• The fusion splicer then tests
for dB loss and tensile
strength before giving the
"OK" beeps for you to
remove the splice from the
machine.
Screen Displayed
 Protection
The protective tube gives physical
protection to the splice and
further protection is provided by
placing the splice into a splice
tray.
• Once all of the fibers have
been joined the whole tray
is then fixed into a splice
box which protects the
cable joint as a whole and
the cable clamps are then
tightened to prevent any
external forces from pulling
on the splices.
 Fiber to Fiber Coupling Efficiency

power coupled into the fiber PF

  [5-1]

power emitted from the sourse Ps

Ps PF
Source Optical Fiber
 Fiber-to-Fiber Coupling loss

• Fiber-to-Fiber coupling loss:

LF [dB]  10 log F [5-8]

• Low loss fiber-fiber joints are either:

1- Splice (permanent bond)
2- Connector (demountable connection)
Different modal distribution of the optical beam emerging from a fiber lead to different degrees of
coupling loss. a) when all modes are equally excited, the output beam fills the entire output NA. b)
for a steady state modal distribution, only the equilibrium NA is filled by the output beam.
 Mechanical misalignment losses

Lateral (axial) misalignment loss is a dominant

Mechanical loss.

1/ 2
d   d  
2
Acomm 2 d
 F ,step   arccos  1     [5-9]
a 2
 2 a a   2a  
Fiber end face

Fiber end defects

 Fiber End Face Preparation
• End face preparation is the first step before splicing or connecting the
fibers through connectors.

• Fiber end must be

• Flat
• Perpendicular to the fiber axis
• Smooth

• Techniques used are

• Sawing
• Grinding
• Polishing

• Grinding and Polishing require a controlled environment like laboratory or

factory
 continued

• Controlled fracture techniques are used to cleave the fiber

• Highly smooth and perpendicular end faces can be produced through this
method
• Requires a careful control of the curvature and the tension
• Improperly controlled tension can cause multiple fracture and can leave a
lip or hackled portion
 Fiber Splicing
Three different types of splicing can be done

• Fusion splicing
• V-groove mechanical splicing
• Elastic tube splice
Fiber splicing

Fusion Splicing
 Fusion Splicing
• It is the thermal bonding of two prepared fiber ends

• The chemical changes during melting sometimes produce a weak splice

• Produce very low splice losses
V-groove optical fiber splicing
 V-groove splicing
• The prepared fiber ends are first butt together in a V-shaped groove
• They are bonded with an adhesive
• The V-shaped channel is either grooved silicon, plastic ceramic or metal
substrate
• Splice loss depends on the fiber size and eccentricity
 Elastic Tube splicing
• It automatically performs lateral, longitudinal and angular alignment
• It splices multimode fiber with losses in the range as commercial fusion
splice
• Less equipment and skills are needed
• It consists of tube of an elastic material
• Internal hole is of smaller diameter as compared to the fiber and is
tapered at two ends for easy insertion of the fiber
• A wide range of fiber diameters can be spliced
• The fibers to be spiced might not be of the same diameter, still its axial
alignment will be maximum
 Optical Fiber Connectors
• Some of the principal requirements of a good connector design are as
follows:
1- low coupling losses
2- Interchangeability
3- Ease of assembly
4- Low environmental sensitivity
5- Low-cost and reliable construction
6- Ease of connection
Optical Splices
• Mechanical
– Ends of two pieces of fiber are cleaned and stripped, then carefully butted
together and aligned using a mechanical assembly. A gel is used at the point of
contact to reduce light reflection and keep the splice loss at a minimum. The
ends of the fiber are held together by friction or compression, and the splice
assembly features a locking mechanism so that the fibers remained aligned.

• Fusion
– Involves actually melting (fusing) together the ends of two pieces of fiber. The
result is a continuous fiber without a break.

Both are capable of splice losses in the range of 0.15 dB (3%) to 0.1
dB (2%).

27
 Optical fiber couplers
• passive devices in which the power transfer takes place
either:
• (a) through the fiber core cross-section by butt jointing
the fibers or by using some form of imaging optics
between the fibers (core interaction type); or
• (b) through the fiber surface and normal to its axis by
converting the guided core modes to both cladding and
refracted modes which then enable the power-sharing
mechanism (surface interaction type).
Optical fiber couplers
Optical Couplers
• Optic couplers either split optical signals into multiple paths or
combine multiple signals on one path.
• The number of input (N)/ output (M) ports, (i.e.s N x M size)
characterizes a coupler.
• Fused couplers can be made in any configuration, but they
commonly use multiples of two (2 x 2, 4 x 4, 8 x 8, etc.).

30
 Multiport optical fiber couplers
•Three- and four-port (2 × 2 star couplers ) couplers, which are used for
signal splitting, distribution and combining.
•Star couplers, which are generally used for distributing a single input
signal to multiple outputs.
•Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) devices, which are a specialized
form of coupler designed to permit a number of different peak
wavelength optical signals to be transmitted in parallel on a single fiber
•WDM couplers either combine the different wavelength optical signal
onto the fiber (i.e. multiplex) or separate the different wavelength optical
signals output from the fiber (i.e. demultiplex).
Optical fiber coupler types and
functions: (a) three-port
couplers;
(b) four-port coupler; (c) star
coupler; (d) wavelength division
multiplexing and
demultiplexing couplers
 Coupler Configuration

P1 P2 P1 P2
P3 P3
1
2
3

1
2 1 ……n
n

33
Three- and four-port couplers

Fabrication techniques for

three-port fiber couplers:
(a) the lateral offset
method; (b) the
semitransparent mirror
method
GRIN-rod lens micro-optic fiber couplers:
GRIN-rod lens
micro-optic fiber
couplers: (a)
parallel surface
type;
(b) slant surface
type
Structure and principle of operation for the fiber fused biconical
taper coupler
loss parameters associated with four-port
couplers
excess loss which is defined as
the ratio of power
input to power output

insertion loss is defined as the loss

obtained for a particular port to-
port optical path.
crosstalk which provides a measure
of the directional isolation achieved
by the
device is the ratio of the
backscattered power received at
the second input port to the input
power
the splitting or coupling ratio indicates the
percentage division of optical power
between the output ports
Example
A four-port multimode fiber FBT coupler has
60 μW optical power launched into port 1. The
measured output powers at ports 2, 3 and 4
are 0.004, 26.0 and 27.5 μW respectively.
Determine the excess loss, the insertion losses
between the input and output ports, the
crosstalk and the split ratio for the device.
Star coupler

Fiber star couplers

using the mixer-rod
technique: (a)
transmissive star
coupler; (b) reflective
star coupler
 Star Coupler
• In an ideal star coupler the optical power from any
input fiber is evenly distributed among the output
fibers. The total loss associated with the star coupler
comprises its theoretical splitting loss together with
the excess loss. The splitting loss is related to the
number of output ports N following:
• Splitting loss (star coupler) = 10 log10 N (dB)
• It should be noted that for a reflective star coupler N
is equal to the total number of ports (both input and
output combined).
Fused Biconical Tapered Coupler

For a single input port and

multiple output ports where j
= 1, N, then the excess loss is
given by
Ladder coupler
the number of output ports N
obtained with an M-stage ladder
coupler is 2M

The 8 × 8 star coupler formed by

cascading 12 four-port couplers (ladder
coupler). This strategy is often used to
produce low-loss single-mode fiber star
or tree
couplers
Two wavelength interference filter demultiplexers: (a) fiber end
device;
(b) GRIN-rod lens device
 Couplers - Fabrication
• Multimode Fibres

• Wavelength independent, depends on how light is launched

• In the coupling region
– Higher order modes are trapped at the outer surface of the cladding: thus
becoming cladding modes
– Lower order modes remain in the original fibre (as the incident angles are still
> the critical angle)
• Cladding modes are converted back
into core modes at the output ports.
• The splitting ratio is determined by the
– length of the taper
– thickness of the cladding. Cladding modes

Source: Australian Photonics CRC 47

 Couplers - Fabrication
• Single Fibres

100% coupling
• It is wavelength dependent. Resonance occur when the two fibres are close to each other.

i The coupling length for 1.55 µm > the coupling length for
1.3 µm:
– 100 % of light coupling for 1.3 µm to the core of fibre B, and to the core of
fibre A.
– 100% of light coupling for 1.55 µm to the core of fibre B
Source: Australian Photonics48CRC
Couplers - Fabrication
• The amount of power transmitted into fibres depend on
the coupling length
• The coupling length changes with the wavelength.
• The splitting ratio can be tuned choosing the coupling
length.
• By choosing carefully the coupler length, it is possible to
combine or separate Two different wavelengths

49
 Coupler - Performance Parameters
i Coupling ratio or splitting ratio

Power from any single output Pt

CR 
Total power out to all ports PT out

P2 
In dB 
CR
10 
log

10 
 For 2 x 2 coupler
P
P
1 2

• Excess Loss Input power Pi

Le 
Total outputpower PT out

 P0 
Le  10 log10  
 P1  P2 
50
Coupler - Performance Parameters
• Insertion Loss
Power from any single output Pt
Li  
Power input Pi

• Isolation Loss or Crosstalk

Input power at one port
Liso 
Reflectedpower back into other input port

 P0 
In dB Liso  10 log10  
 P3 
51
Star Couplers
• Optical couplers with more than four ports.
• Types of star couplers:
– transmission star coupler
the light at any of the input port is split equally through all output ports.

– reflection star coupler

52
 Fibre Star Coupler
Combines power from N inputs and divided them between M outputs
1 1
P1

PN
N N


1
Coupling ratio 
CR
10
log
1010
log
N
10
N

 P 
 in 
e
L 10log
Excess loss 
10
N 

 i
P
out
,i 
1
Power at any one output Po
,
i (P
1P
2 
.......
PN)
n
53
 Star Coupler - 8 X 8
Star couplers are optical couplers with more than four ports
1 1, 2, ... 8
2

3
4

N/2 5
6

7
8 1, 2, ... 8

log 2 N

N
No of 3 dB coupler N
c
3 
dB log
2N
2
54
 Star Coupler - 8 X 8 - contd.
• If a fraction of power traversing each 3 dB coupler = Fp,
where 0< Fp < 1.
Then, power lost within the coupler = 1- Fp.
Excess loss Le  10 log10 ( Fplog 2 N )

Coupling ratio 
1

CR
10
log
1010
log
N
10
(splitting loss) N


Total loss = splitting loss + excess loss

LT  10 (1  3.322 log10 F ) log10 N

55
 Reflection Star Couplers

The light arriving at port A and is

reflected back to all ports.
A directional coupler separates
the transmitted and received
signals.

Source: Australian Photonics CRC 56

Y- Couplers
Y-junctions are 1 x 2 couplers and are a key element in networking.
I1
Ii
I2

1 X 8 coupler
57
Splitters
• The simplest couplers are fiber optic splitters.
• They possess at least three ports but may have more than 32 for more
complex devices.
• Popular splitting ratios include 50%-50%, 90%-10%, 95%-5% and 99%-1%;
however, almost any custom value can be achieved.
• Excess loss: assures that the total output is never as high as the input. It
hinders the performance. All couplers and splitters share this parameter.
• They are symmetrical. For instance, if the same coupler injected 50 µW
into the 10% output leg, only 5 µW would reach the common port.

Output Output

Input
58
Coupler + Splitter - Applications
• Local monitoring of a light source output (usually for control
purposes).
• Distributing a common signal to several locations
simultaneously.
• Making a linear, tapped fiber optic bus. Here, each splitter
would be a 95%-5% device that allows a small portion of the
energy to be tapped while the bulk of the energy continues
down the main trunk.

59
 Optical Filters
• Passband l i-1 l i l i+1

- Insertion loss
- Ripple
- Wavelengths
(peak, center, edges)
- Bandwidths
(0.5 dB, 3 dB, ..)
- Polarization dependence

• Stopband
- Crosstalk rejection
- Bandwidths
- (20 dB, 40 dB, ..)
Crosstalk Passband Crosstalk

Agilent Tech. LW Div.

60
Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBG)
• FBG is a periodic refractive index variation (Period ) written
along the fibre (single-mode) core using high power UV radiation.
•All the wavelengths statisfying the condition 0 = 2  neff are
reflected
• If the optical period is 0 / 2, the grating reflects wavelength 0
selectively. Useful in filtering communication channels in or out.

61
 Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBG)

Grating pattern etched

wavelength into body of fibre

Detector Optical fibre

For a given grating period a particular wavelength

(frequency) of light is reflected. In this case yellow light will
be reflected
If the grating spacing is changed (e.g. reduced due to
compression of the fibre or a drop in temperature} the
wavelength of the reflected light changes. In this case it
becomes higher and reflects blue light

In practice the colour shifts will be much finer than those illustated

http://www.co2sink.org/ppt/fbganimation.ppt

62
 Fiber Brag Gratings (FBG) - contd.
Bragg Gratings
Optical Fibre
Dz Dz

l1 l2 l3 lN
• Regular interval pattern: reflective at one wavelength
• Notch filter, add / drop multiplexer (see later)

• Increasing intervals: “chirped” FBG compensation for

chromatic dispersion

63
Optical Isolators
• Only allows transmission in one direction through it Main
application: To protect lasers and optical amplifiers from returning
reflected light, which can cause instabilities

• Insertion loss:
– Low loss (0.2 to 2 dB) in forward direction
– High loss in reverse direction:
20 to 40 dB single stage, 40 to 80 dB dual stage)

• Return loss:
– More than 60 dB without connectors

64
Principle of operation

Horizontal Vertical Linear

polarisation polarisation polarisation

65
 Optical Circulators

• Based on optical crystal technology similar to isolators

– Insertion loss 0.3 to 1.5 dB, isolation 20 to 40 dB

• Typical configuration: 3 port device

– Port 1 -> Port 2
– Port 2 -> Port 3
– Port 3 -> Port 1

Agilent Tech. LW Div.

66
Coupling efficiency:

It is the measure of the amount of optical power emitted from a

source that can be coupled into a fiber .

η = PF / P S
PF =Power coupled into the fiber

PS = Power emitted from the light source

Coupling efficiency depends on:

1. Type of fiber that is attached to the source
2. Coupling Process (e.g. lenses or other coupling improvement schemes)
 Flylead / Pigtail:
Short length of optical fiber attached with the source for best
power coupling configuration.
Thus
Power launching problem for these pigtailed sources reduces to a simpler
coupling optical power from one fiber to another.

Effects to be considered in this case include:

1.Fiber misalignments:
a. Different core sizes
b. Numerical apertures
c. Core refractive index profiles
2.Clean and smooth fiber end faces:
a) perfectly perpendicular to the axis
b) Polished at a slight angle to prevent back reflections
Optical fiber receptacles:
An alternate arrangement consist of light sources and optical
fiber receptacles that are integrated within a transceiver
package.

Fiber connector from a cable is simply mated to the built in connector in the
transceiver package.

Commercially available configurations are the popular small form factor (SFF) and the
SFF pluggable (SFP) devices.

Photodiode, PIN, 1310/1550 nm, LC, SFP ,Transceiver, 155 Mb/s STM-1
SC or FC Receptacle
Power coupling from LED to graded-index fiber
rs
• Power coupled from the LED to the graded indexed fiber is2 given 2as
PLED ,Gin  2 Bo  n  r   n2 rdr
2
 
0
rs
2

PLED , gin  2 Bo  n  r   n rdr
2 2
2  
 2 Ps n1  1 
2 2  r
  
s 


0
   2  a  
 2  s 
r


 2 Ps n1  1 
2
  
   2  a  
2
n n
• If the medium between source and fiber is different from the core
material with refractive index n, the power coupled into the fiber will
be reduced by the factor
R  
1

 n1  n 
2
n n
R   1 
 n1  n 
 Fiber-to-Fiber Joints
Interconnecting fibers in a fiber optic system is another very important
factor. These interconnects should be low-loss. These interconnects occur
at

• Optical source
• Photodetector
• Within the cable where two fibers are connected
• Intermediate point in a link where two cables are connected

The connection can be

• Permanent bond: known as SPLICE

• Easily demountable connection: Known as CONNECTOR

 continued
• All joining techniques are subject to different levels of power loss at the
joint. These losses depend on different parameters like
• Input power distribution to the joint
• Length of the fiber between the source and the joint
• Geometrical and waveguide characteristics of the two ends at the joint
• Fiber end face qualities

• The optical power that can be coupled from one fiber to the other is
limited by the number of modes that can propagate in each fiber
• A fiber with 500 modes capacity connected with the fiber of 400 modes
capacity can only couple 80% of the power
• For a GIN fiber with core radius a, cladding index n2, k=2π/, and n(r) as
the variation in the core index profile, the total number of modes can be
found from the expression

5.18
 continued
• Eq. 5.18 can be associated with the general local numerical aperture to
yield

• As the different fibers can have different values of a, NA(0) and α, so M

can be different for different fibers
• The fraction of energy that can be coupled is proportional to the common
mode volume Mcomm. The fiber-to-fiber coupling efficiency F is given by

Where ME is the number of modes in the emitting fiber. The fiber-to-fiber

coupling loss LF is given in terms of F as
LF = -10 log F
Case a: All modes equally excited, joint with
fiber of the same size having even slight
mechanical misalignment can cause
power loss

Case b: Propagating modes in the steady

state have an equilibrium NA. Joining with
an optical fiber of the same core size and
same characteristics will face a NA of
larger size in the receiving fiber and even a
mechanical misalignment cannot cause
the power loss.

case b is for longer fibers. Power loss will

occur when in the receiving fiber, steady
state will be achieved
 Mechanical Misalignment
• Mechanical alignment is the major problem when joining two fibers
considering their microscopic size.
• A standard multimode GIN fiber core is 50 - 100μm in diameter (thickness
of the human hair)
• Single mode fiber has core dia of 9 μm
• Radiation losses occur because the acceptance cone of the emitting fiber
is not equal to the acceptance cone of the receiving fiber.
• Magnitude of radiation loss depends on the degree of misalignment
• Three different types of misalignment can occur
• Longitudinal Separation
• Angular misalignment
• Axial displacement or lateral displacement
 Axial displacement

• Most common misalignment is

the axial displacement.
• It causes the greatest power loss

Illustration:

• Axial offset reduces the overlap

area of the two fiber-core end
faces
• This in turn reduces the power
coupled between two fibers.
 continued

• To illistrate the effect of misalignment, consider two identical step-index

fibers of radii a.
• Suppose the axes are offset be a separation d
• Assume there is a uniform mdal power distribution in the emitting fiber.
• NA is constant for the two fibers so coupled fiber will be proportional to
the common area Acomm of the two fiber cores
• Assignment: show that Acomm has expression

• For step index fiber, the coupling efficiency is simply the ratio of the
common core area of the core end face area
 continued

• For Graded Index Fiber the calculations for the power loss between two
identical fibers is more complex since n varies across the end face of the
core.
• The total power coupled in the common area is restricted by the NA of
the transmitting or receiving fiber at the point, depending which one is
smaller.
• If the end face of the GIN fiber is uniformly illuminated, the optical
power accepted by the core will be that power which falls within the NA
of the fiber.
• The optical power density p(r) at a point r on the fiber end is
proportional to the square of the local NA(r) at that point

Where NA(r) and NA(0) are defined by eqs. 2.80. p(0) is the power
density at the core axis which is related to the total power P in the fiber
by
We can use the parabolic index profile (α=2.0) for which p(r) will be givn

 r  2
as

p r   p 0 1    
p(r) = p(0)[1 – {r/a}2 ]
P will be calculated as
P = (πa2 / 2) p(0)

  
 a
The calculations of received power for GIN fiber can be carried out and the
result will be

Where P is the total power in the transmitting fiber, d is the distance

between two axes and a is the radius of fiber
 continued

The coupling loss for the offsets is given as

For Longitudinal misalignment:

For longitudinal misalignment of distance s, the coupling loss is given as

Where s is the misalignment and θc is the critical acceptance angle of the

fiber
 Fiber End Face Preparation
• End face preparation is the first step before splicing or connecting the
fibers through connectors.

• Fiber end must be

• Flat
• Perpendicular to the fiber axis
• Smooth

• Techniques used are

• Sawing
• Grinding
• Polishing

• Grinding and Polishing require a controlled environment like laboratory or

factory
 continued

• Controlled fracture techniques are used to cleave the fiber

• Highly smooth and perpendicular end faces can be produced through this
method
• Requires a careful control of the curvature and the tension
• Improperly controlled tension can cause multiple fracture and can leave a
lip or hackled portion
 Fiber Splicing
Three different types of splicing can be done

• Fusion splicing
• V-groove mechanical splicing
• Elastic tube splice
Influences on Fusion Process
Self-Centering Effect
The self-centering effect is the tendency of the fiber to form a
homogeneous joint which is consequently free of misalignment as result
of the surface tension of the molten glass during the fusion bonding
process
Core Eccentricity

The process of aligning the fiber cores is of great importance in splicing.

Fibers with high core eccentricity can cause , depending on the position
of the relating cores, increased splice losses due to the core offset
within the splice
Fiber End Face Quality

The end face quality of fibers to be fused directly influences the splice loss.
Thus when cleaving fibers for splicing, the end face of the fiber has to be
clean, unchipped, flat and perpendicular to the fiber axis
Influences on Fusion Process
Fiber Preparation Quality

When preparing the fibers for splicing, it is necessary to ensure that no

damage occurs to the fiber cladding

Any damage to the unprotected glass of the fiber can produce micro cracks
causing the fiber to break during handling, splicing or storage

Dirt Particles or Coating Residues

Any contamination on the fiber cladding or in the v-grooves can lead to
bad fiber positioning.
This can cause fiber offset (fiber axis misalignment) and can influence the
fusion process extremely like bad cleave angles
Influences on Fusion Process

Fiber Melting Characteristics

When fibers are brought together for splice some air gaps are present,
called gas bubbles

Electric arc should not be too intense or weak.

When electric arc melts the fibers, the glass tends to collapse inwards,
filling the gap

Electrode Condition

High quality splices require a reproducible and stable fusion arc.

Fusion arc is influenced by electrode condition.

Electrode cleaning or replacement is necessary from time to time.

 Fusion Splicing
• It is the thermal bonding of two prepared fiber ends

• The chemical changes during melting sometimes produce a weak splice

• Produce very low splice losses
 V-groove splicing
• The prepared fiber ends are first butt together in a V-shaped groove
• They are bonded with an adhesive
• The V-shaped channel is either grooved silicon, plastic ceramic or metal
substrate
• Splice loss depends on the fiber size and eccentricity
 Elastic Tube splicing
• It automatically performs lateral, longitudinal and angular alignment
• It splices multimode fiber with losses in the range as commercial fusion
splice
• Less equipment and skills are needed
• It consists of tube of an elastic material
• Internal hole is of smaller diameter as compared to the fiber and is
tapered at two ends for easy insertion of the fiber
• A wide range of fiber diameters can be spliced
• The fibers to be spiced might not be of the same diameter, still its axial
alignment will be maximum
 Optical Fiber Connectors
 The optical connectors are generally used to join sources as
well as detectors to optical fiber temporarily.

 Some of the principal requirements of a good connector design

are as follows:
 Low losses
 Interchangeability
 Ease of assembly
 Low environmental sensitivity
 Low-cost and reliable construction
 Ease of connection
 Optical Fiber Connectors

Principle requirements of a good connector design are as

follows:

Coupling loss:
The connector assembly must maintain stringent alignment tolerances to
ensure low mating losses. The losses should be around 2 to 5 percent (0.1 to 0.2
dB) and must not change significantly during operation and after numerous
connects and disconnects.

Interchangeability:
Connectors of the same type must be compatible from one manufacturer to
another.

Ease of assembly:
A service technician should be able to install the connector in a field
environment, that is, in a location other than the connector attachment
factory.
Low environmental sensitivity:
Conditions such as temperature, dust, and moisture should have a small effect
on connector loss variations.

Low cost and reliable construction:

The connector must have a precision suitable to the application, but it must
be reliable and its cost must not be a major factor in the system.

Ease of connection:
Except for certain unique applications, one should be able to mate and
disconnect the connector simply and by hand.
 Types of fiber connectors
 Basically there are four types of Fiber optic connectors:
 Butt Joint.
 Resilient ferrule.
 Grooved plate hybrids.
 Expanded beam.
Lets concentrate on Butt Joint and Expanded Beam.

Straight sleeve Tapered sleeve

Connector components
Connectors are available in designs that screw on, twist on, or snap in place.
The twist-on and snap-on designs are the ones used most commonly.

The basic coupling mechanisms used belong to either butt-joint or the

expanded-beam classes. The majority of connectors use a butt-joint coupling
mechanism.

Butt-joint connector:

The key components are a long, thin stainless steel, glass, ceramic, or
plastic cylinder, known as a ferrule, and a precision sleeve into which the
ferrule fits.

This sleeve is known variably as an alignment sleeve, an adapter, or a

coupling receptacle.

The center of the ferrule has a hole that precisely matches the size
of the fiber cladding diameter.
Connector components
Expanded beam connector :

Employs lenses on the end of the fiber.

These lenses either collimate the light emerging from the transmitting
fiber, or focus the expanded beam onto the core of the receiving fiber.

Optical processing elements, such as beam splitters and switches, can

easily be inserted into the expanded beam between the fiber ends.
 Connector types
• Connector are available in designs that screw on, twist on, or snap into
place
• Most commonly used are twist on, or snap on designs
• These include single channel and multi channel assemblies
• The basic coupling mechanism is either a Butt joint or an expanded beam
class
• Butt joint connectors employ a metal, ceramic or a molded plastic Ferrule
for each fiber
 Butt Joint Connectors
• Butt joint connectors employ a metal, ceramic or molded
plastic ferrule for each fiber and a precision sleeve into
which the ferrule fit.
• The fiber is epoxied into a precision hole which has been
drilled into the ferrule.
• They are of two type: Straight Sleeve and Tapered Sleeve.
• In Straight sleeve connector,
the length of the sleeve and a
guide ring on the ferrules
determine the end separation
of fibers.
• In tapered sleeve, it uses a
tapered sleeve to accept
and guide tapered ferrules.
• Again the sleeve length
and guide rings maintain a
given fiber-end separation.
 Expanded Beam Fiber Optic connector
• Expanded beam connector employs lenses on the end of the fibers.
• The lenses collimate the light emerging from the transmitting fiber and
focuses the beam on the receiving fiber
• The fiber to lens distance is equal to the focal length
• As the beam is collimated so even a separation between the fibers will not
make a difference
• Connector is less dependent on the lateral alignment
• Beam splitters or switches can be inserted between the fibers
 Expanded beam connector
 It employs lenses on the ends of the fibers.
 These lenses either collimate the light
from transmitting fiber or focus the
expanded beam onto the core of the
receiving filter.
 Fiber to lens distance = focal length of
lens.

 Advantages:
• Connector is less dependent on lateral
alignments.
• Beam splitters and switches can be easily
inserted into expanded beam between fiber
ends.
Ferrule connector
Biconical connector
Expanded beam connector
 Losses in Splices and Connectors
• Core – size mismatch
• Longitudinal gap separation
• Lateral core misalignment Intrinsic
• Angular misalignment joint
• NA mismatch loss loss
• Profile mismatch
• Improper fiber end preparation
Intrinsic coupling loss at fiber joints