Power Quality Partnership Harmonics in Power Systems: Copper Development Association

Power Quality Partnership
Harmonics in Power Systems
Copper Development Association

Power Quality Partnership
Fluke (UK) Ltd
MGE UPS Systems Ltd
Rhopoint Systems Ltd

Copper Development
Association
• Established 1933
• website - www.cda.org.uk
• Technical helpline 01727 731200
• IEE Endorsed Provider

Background to Harmonics, Problems, Solutions and Standards

David Chapman, Copper Development Association
Harmonic Measurement and Power Quality Surveys

Ken West, Fluke (UK) Ltd
Total Harmonic Management

Shri Karve, MGE UPS Systems Ltd
Applying Predictive Techniques to Power Quality

David Bradley, Rhopoint Systems Ltd

Fundamental with third and fifth harmonics
1.100
Fundamental
Third harmonic
Fifth harmonic
0.000
0 90 180 270 360
-1.100

Composite waveform
1.600
0.000
0 90 180 270 360
-1.600

Loads that generate harmonics
 Switched mode power supplies (SMPS)
 Electronic fluorescent lighting ballasts
 Variable speed drives
 Un-interruptible power supplies (UPS)
These are all non-linear loads

How harmonics are generated – linear load

How harmonics are generated – non-linear load

A Common non-linear load

Current waveform for a typical Personal Computer

Harmonic profile of a typical Personal Computer

Harmonic profile for electronic fluorescent ballast

Harmonic profile for magnetic fluorescent ballast

Six-pulse bridge

Typical harmonic profile - six-pulse bridge
Six pulse bridge - harmonic current
25
20
15
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Harmonic number

Twelve-pulse bridge

Typical harmonic profile - twelve-pulse bridge
Twelve pulse bridge - harmonic current
25
20
15
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Harmonic number

Why have harmonics become so important?
Harmonic generating equipment has been in

use for decades
• Increase in the number of loads
• Change in the nature of loads
• Increase in those producing triple-Ns

Equivalent circuit of a harmonic generating load

Harmonic Diversity
80
70
60
50
% wrt RMS 40
30
20
10
0
41
Fund 20
3rd 10
5th 5 No of Units (pairs)
Harmonic 7th
9th 2
11th 1

Harmonic Diversity - THDI
THD
120
100
80
% wrt Fundamental
60
40
20
0
1 2 5 10 20 41
No of Units (pairs)

Problems caused by harmonics
 currents within the installation
 overloading of neutrals
 overheating of transformers
 nuisance tripping of circuit breakers
 over-stressing of power factor correction capacitors
 skin effect
 voltages within the installation
 voltage distortion & zero-crossing noise
 overheating of induction motors
 currents in the supply

Overheating of neutrals
In balanced three phase systems the

fundamental current cancels out
But triple-N harmonics add arithmetically!
Non triple-N harmonics cancel in the neutral

Harmonic neutral currents
8 .0
P hase 1 Phase 2 P hase 3
6 .0
P hase 1 3rd harmonic

4 .0

2 .0

0 .0
0 120 240 360 480 600 720

-2 .0
3rd harmonic neutral current
-4 .0
-6 .0
-8 .0

Neutral conductor sizing



Neutral currents can easily approach twice the phase

currents - sometimes in a half-sized conductor.
IEEE 1100-1992 recommends that neutral busbars

feeding non-linear loads should have a cross-
sectional area not less than 173% that of the phase
bars.
Neutral cables should have a cross-sectional area that

is 200% that of the phases, e.g. by using twin single
core cables.

Sizing the neutral conductor
BS 7671:2001 - From January 2002
473 - 03 - 04
where neutral current is expected to exceed phase

current
473 - 03 - 05
where neutral cross-section is less than phase cross
section
- neutral overcurrent protection is required

For three phase circuits using single core cables:
• Use a neutral conductor sized for the actual

neutral current
• If the neutral current is not known, use a double

sized neutral cable
• Provide overcurrent protection
• But take account of the grouping factors!
• Take into account voltage drop

For multi-core cables :
• Multi-core cables are rated for only three loaded

cores - applies to both 4 and 5 core cables
• When harmonics are present the neutral is also a

current carrying conductor
• Cable rated for three units of current is carrying

more - three phases plus the neutral current
• It must be de-rated to avoid overheating
• Neutral must have overcurrent protection
• Grouping factor must be taken into account

Sizing the neutral conductor - thermal
2.5
2.0
Cable size multiplier
1.5
1.0
0.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
% third harmonic current in phase

Sizing the neutral conductor - IEC
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

2.5
Thermal
IEC
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Neutral conductor protection
Neutral conductors should be appropriately

sized and provided with over-current protection.
The protective device must break all the phases,

but does not necessarily need to break the
neutral itself.
This implies a future need for 4 pole breakers

with double rated neutral poles.

Effect of harmonics on transformers
Transformers supplying harmonic loads must be

appropriately de-rated
 Harmonic currents, being of higher frequency,

cause increased magnetic losses in the core
and increased eddy current and skin effect
losses in the windings
 Triple-n harmonic currents circulate in delta

windings, increasing resistive losses, operating
temperature and reducing effective load
capacity

Increased Eddy current losses in transformers
Increase in eddy current loss can be calculated by:
h  h max
Peh  Pef  I 2h h 2
h 1
where:
Peh is the total eddy current loss
Pef is the eddy current loss at fundamental
frequency
h is the harmonic order
Ih is the RMS current at harmonic h as a
percentage of rated fundamental current
K-Rating of Transformers
Two rating or de-rating systems for transformers:-
• American system, established by UL and

manufacturers, specifies harmonic capability of
transformer - known as K factor.
• European system, developed by IEC, defines

de-rating factor for standard transformers -
known as factor K.

K-Rating of Transformers - US System
First, calculate the K factor of the load according to:
h  h max
K  I 2h h 2
h 1
where:
h is the harmonic order
Ih is the RMS current at h in per unit of rated load current

For this typical PC load, the K factor is 11.6

(See IEE 1100-1992 for a worked example)

Next, select a transformer with a higher K rating:

standard ratings are 4, 9, 13, 20, 30, 40 and 50.
NB - for non K-rated transformers:
The K factor describes the increase in eddy

current losses, not total losses.

K-Rating of Transformers - European System
In Europe, the transformer de-rating factor is calculated
according to the formulae in BS 7821 Part 4. The factor
K is given by:
0.5
 e  I1 
2 n N  I   2
 n q  n  

K  1

 
1 e  I 
   I1  
 n2
 
e is ratio of eddy current loss (50 Hz) to resistive loss

n is the harmonic order
q is dependent on winding type and frequency,
typically 1.5 to 1.7

K-Rating of Transformers - European System
For the same PC load, the de-rating factor is 78%

K Factor
The methods for rating transformers

are discussed in CDA Publication 144
In addition, calculation software is

available on our web site:
www.cda.org.uk

K-Rating - Calculation software

K-Rating - Calculation software

Harmonic Diversity - K Factor
K Factor
16
14
12
10
K Factor
0
1 2 5 10 20 41
No of Units (pairs)

K-Rating or De-rating?
‘K-rated’ transformers are designed to supply harmonic

loads by :
• using stranded conductors to reduce eddy current
losses
• bringing secondary winding star point connections
out separately to provide a 300% neutral rating

K-Rating or De-rating?
‘De-rating’ a standard transformer has some

disadvantages:-
 primary over-current protection may be too high
to protect the secondary and too low to survive
the in-rush current
 the neutral star point is likely to be rated at only
100% of the phase current
 it is less efficient
 future increases in loading must take the de-rating
fully into account

Effect of harmonics on transformers
Transformers supplying harmonic loads must be

appropriately de-rated
 Harmonic currents, being of higher frequency,

cause increased magnetic losses in the core
and increased eddy current and skin effect
losses in the windings
 Triple-n harmonic currents circulate in delta

windings, increasing resistive losses, operating
temperature and reducing effective load
capacity

Effect of triple-n harmonics in transformers
Triple-n harmonic currents circulate in delta windings -
they do not propagate back onto the supply network.
- but the transformer must be specified and rated to

cope with the additional losses.

Skin effect
Alternating current tends to flow on the outer surface

of a conductor - skin effect - and is more pronounced
at high frequencies.
 At the seventh harmonic and above, skin effect

will become significant, causing additional loss
and heating.
 Where harmonic currents are present, cables

should be de-rated accordingly. Multiple cable
cores or laminated busbars can be used.

Skin effect - penetration depth
where:
1   105 d is the depth of penetration, mm
d
2 f f is the frequency, Hz, and
 is the resistivity of the
conductor
At the fundamental, 50 Hz d = 9.32 mm

At the 11th harmonic, 550Hz d = 2.81 mm

Circuit breakers
Nuisance tripping can occur in the presence of

harmonics for two reasons:
 Residual current circuit breakers are

electromechanical devices. They may not sum
higher frequency components correctly and
therefore trip erroneously.
 The current flowing in the circuit will be higher

than expected due to the presence of harmonic
currents. Most portable measuring instruments
do not read true RMS values.

Problems caused by harmonics
 currents within the installation
 overloading of neutrals
 over-heating of transformers
 over-stressing of power factor correction capacitors
 skin effect
 nuisance tripping of circuit breakers
 voltages within the installation
 voltage distortion & zero-crossing noise
 over-heating of induction motors
 currents in the supply

Voltage distortion

Reducing Voltage Distortion by Circuit Separation

Effect of harmonics on induction motors
 Increased magnetic and copper losses
 Each harmonic generates a field which may rotate

forward (+), backward (-), or remain stationary (0)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
+ - 0 + - 0 + - 0 + - 0
• Zero sequence harmonics produce a stationary field,

causing over-heating and reduced efficiency

Effect of harmonics on induction motors
• The negative and positive sequence harmonics
together cause torque pulsing, vibration and
reduced service life
• Harmonics are induced in the rotor leading to
overheating and torque pulsing
Stator harmonic 1 5 7 11 13 17 19
Rotor harmonic - 6 6 12 12 18 18
Harmonic rotation F B F B F B F

Motor de-rating curve for harmonic voltages
0.95
0.9
De-rating Factor
0.85
0.8
0.75
0.7
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Harmonic Voltage Factor (HVF)

Harmonic voltage factor
The Harmonic Voltage Factor (HVF) is defined as:
n  V 2
n
HVF  
n 5 n
where:
Vn is the RMS voltage at the nth harmonic as a
percentage of the fundamental, and
n is the order of each odd harmonic, excluding
triple-Ns

Harmonic problems affecting the supply
 Harmonic currents cause harmonic voltage
distortion on the supply that can affect
other customers. This distortion can
propagate onto the 11 kV grid and spread
widely.
 There are limits for harmonic voltage

distortion - a supplier may refuse to
supply power to a site that exceeds them.

Harmonic Standards
Electricity Association Engineering
Recommendation G 5/4 (2001)
BS EN 61000
IEEE Std 519-1992 Recommended Practices and

Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical
Power Systems
ISBN 1 - 55937 - 239 - 7

Why revise G5/3?
 Levels at 132kV higher than Grid Code allows

 Introduction of concept of Electromagnetic
Compatibility
 G5/3 didn’t include notching and burst harmonics
 Introduction of the EU Compatibility Directive and
developments in IEC and European Standards
 Better information on network harmonic impedance

(see ETR 112)

The Electromagnetic Compatibility concept
 Satisfactory operation of supply systems and

users’ equipment only when electromagnetic
compatibility exists between them
 Emission limits help fulfil this objective
 G5/4 seeks to limit harmonic distortion levels on
the network at the time of connection to below the
immunity levels of equipment
 Enforced via the Electricity Supply Regs, Grid &
Distribution Codes, and connection agreements

Harmonic Compatibility
Planning levels
Compatibility Level
Total supply
network
disturbance Immunity Susceptibility of
(test) levels local equipment
Emission
limits for
Probability Density
individual
sources
Disturbance Level

Compatibility levels v Planning levels
 Compatibility levels in IEC 61000-2-2 & 61000-2-12,
for 400V and 6.6kV to 33kV systems are based on
the immunity of capacitors
 The margins between planning levels and the

compatibility levels depend on voltage level and
range from 3% at lv and 5% at mv to 0.5% at ehv
 The margins are necessary to make allowance for

system resonance and for loads connected where
there is no consent required from the DNO

Stage 1
 Applies only to lv connected loads
 Requires reference to other IEC standards e.g.

 IEC 61000-3-2 emissions from lv connected
equipment <16A
 IEC 61000-3-4 ditto >16A (To be 61000-3-12)
 Clarifies that levels may be modified by reference to

relevant fault levels rather than the notional ones
used to derive the table of emissions Table 7

Aggregate loads
 G5/4 requires that aggregate non-linear loads be
considered
• An individual non-linear equipment complying
with 61000-3-2 can be connected without
consideration
• Groups of non-linear equipment with
aggregate rated current <16A and complying
can be connected
• For >16A either 61000-3-4 or 61000-3-6 should
be used to assess emissions using diversity
rules from 61000-3-6 if necessary

Example of application - the problem
 Connection of communication centre equipment
– 15 off rectifier equipment type R2948-15
– each equipment is rated at 12.37A
– each equipment meets BS EN 61000-3-2
– the connection will be at lv and single phase
– future expansion expected to 30 units
 Can they be connected?
 The customer says that no data on emissions is

available

The solution
 Data must be available - cannot claim

BS EN 61000-3-2 compliance otherwise!
 Data was obtained simply by e-mailing

the manufacturer in New Zealand
 Simplified calculations were carried out

on a spreadsheet to check compliance

Product data sheet
Product Test
Harmonic Emissions
Test Parameters
Product: R2948-15 Input Voltage: 230v 50Hz
Serial #: 1040171 Output Voltage: 54v at no load
Product Compliance Group
Date tested: 07 October 1999 Output Current: 52A
Ambient temperature: +20°C
12.37A
0.5
EUT
EN61000-3-2
0.4
0.3
IP Currenty(A)
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Harmonic (f1 = 50Hz)

The calculations
 As a first estimate the current emissions are

multiplied by the number of units, and the result
compared with the values in Table 7 of G5/4.
This shows that there is no problem
 The spreadsheet calculations would show that

the future increase to 30 units would give values
of emissions greater than the limits for triple-Ns
above 21st

Table 7: Stage 1 Max Harmonic RMS Current Emissions
for aggregate loads and equipment rated >16A per phase
Harmonic Emission Harmonic Emission Harmonic Emission Harmonic Emission

order ‘h’ current Ih order ‘h’ current Ih order ‘h’ current Ih order ‘h’ current Ih
2 28.9 15 1.4 28 1.0 41 1.8
3 48.1 16 1.8 29 3.1 42 0.3
4 9.0 17 13.6 30 0.5 43 1.6
5 28.9 18 0.8 31 2.8 44 0.7
6 3.0 19 9.1 32 0.9 45 0.3
7 41.2 20 1.4 33 0.4 46 0.6
8 7.2 21 0.7 34 0.8 47 1.4
9 9.6 22 1.3 35 2.3 48 0.3
10 5.8 23 7.5 36 0.4 49 1.3
11 39.4 24 0.6 37 2.1 50 0.6
12 1.2 25 4.0 38 0.8
13 27.8 26 1.1 39 0.4
14 2.1 27 0.5 40 0.7

Sample spreadsheet
Harmonic Emission Emissions Table 7 Emissions
number from EUT 15 units emissions 30 units
3 0.42 6.3 48.1 12.6
5 0.21 3.1 28.9 6.2
7 0.16 2.3 41.2 4.7
9 0.11 1.65 9.6 3.3
15 0.03 0.43 1.4 0.8
21 0.035 0.525 0.7 1.05
Emissions in Amps (RMS)

Example flow chart for lv connection
START
N N N
Less than Complies with Complies with
16A 61000-3-4 6.3.1
Y Y
Y
N N
<5 kVA
Y 3 phase
Complieswith
Complies with
61000-3-2
61000-3-2 Y
0 Y
N Complies N
with Table 6
N
Complies with Y Y Complies
6.2 with Table 7
Y
N
Mitigation required Connect to network Go to Stage 2

Stage 2
 This applies only to:
 a load or aggregate load that doesn’t meet IEC

61000-3-2 and 61000-3-6, or Table 7 current
emissions, i.e. Stage 1
 PCC less than 33kV i.e. at 6.6, 11 or 22kV
 Current emissions can be less than Table 12, or a

simplified voltage assessment can be used based
on the harmonic impedance just described

Harmonic Measurements

Assessment of the connection of new
non-linear equipment under Stage 2
a) measure voltage distortion present at PCC
b) assess the voltage distortion which will be

caused by the new equipment, and
c) predict the possible effect on harmonic

voltage levels by an addition of the results
of (a) and (b)

Assessment of the connection of new
non-linear equipment under Stage 2
If the results of (c) are less than

• the harmonic voltage planning levels for the
5th harmonic and
• the THD planning level
connection of the equipment is acceptable

Combination rules
 for harmonics up to and including the 5th and for
all triple-Ns, the measured and calculated values
of voltage distortion are assumed to peak at the
same time and to be in phase - linear addition
 for the other harmonics, an average phase

difference of 90 is assumed at the time of
maximum THD - rms addition
 the THD is then given by the rms addition of all

combined harmonics up to the 50th

The Challenge
to keep the harmonic voltage distortion at the point of

common coupling below levels permitted by G5/4
to keep harmonic currents below levels
that cause equipment overload and damage within the

installation
that are permitted by G5/4

Harmonic solutions
Steps to be taken to reduce voltage distortion on

the supply include, for example:
 Passive harmonic filters
 Isolation transformers
 Active harmonic conditioners

Passive harmonic filters
Filters are useful when
 the harmonic profile is well defined – such as

motor controllers
 the lowest harmonic is well above the

fundamental frequency
- but filter design can be difficult and, especially

for lower harmonics, the filters can be bulky and
expensive

Passive harmonic filter

Power Factor 
V I
Ip
Iq

0  2
Power Factor
POWER
Ip

0  2
Power Factor
POWER
Iq
0  2
Power Factor 
V IL
I1
I7
I5

0  2
Power Factor
G
active reactive power

power
M
Power Factor Correction
G
CAPACITOR
power
M
G
CAPACITOR
power
M
• Diversity
• Self Excitation
• Harmonics
M M M M

Control
M M M M

• Transformer overloading
• Step voltage
Control
• Bank Size
• Switch-fuse & Cable load
ratings
• Load make/break rating
of main isolator/switch-
M M M M fuse

Power Factor Correction Bank Sizing
Required improvement in % wattess
X kW Maximum Demand
equivalent to {tan(cos-1PFA) - tan(cos-1PFR)} X MD (kW)
or
kVArh (actual) - kVArh (required)

running hours X load factor

• Capacitor Discharge time required for

standard Power Factor banks (1 minute)
• Rapidly switching loads require Zero

crossing Thyristor or IGBT switched
steps
e.g. Spot Welders

Lift motors
Cranes

Harmonic Resonance
TO POWER SYSTEM
LV
CONVERTOR
M HARMONICS
AMPLIFIED
HARMONICS
Detuned or Blocking Banks
SOURCE IMPEDANCE WITH FILTER IN CIRCUIT

Capacitive
0.3000
0.2500 Fo = 189 to 204 Hz

0.2000
Inductive
Y = Ln (Z+1)
0.1500
5th 7th 11th

0.1000
0.0500
0.0000
100
124
136
148
160
196
208
220
232
256
268
280
292
328
340
352
364
388
400
412
424
460
472
484
520
532
544
556
592
172
184
244
304
316
376
436
448
496
508
568
580
112
Frequency

Filter Banks - 5th Harmonic
Capacitive
0.3000
Fo = 235 to 245Hz
0.2500 7th
0.2000
Y=Ln (Z+1)
0.1500
Inductive
0.1000
0.0500
0.0000
Frequency

Filter Banks 5th & 7th Harmonic
0.5000
0.4500
0.4000
0.3500 5th 7th

0.3000
Y = Ln (Z+1)
0.2500
0.2000
0.1500
0.1000
0.0500
0.0000
124
160
280
400
556
568
100
136
148
172
184
196
208
220
232
244
256
268
292
304
316
328
340
352
364
376
388
412
424
436
448
460
472
484
496
508
520
532
544
580
592
112
Frequency

Third harmonic filters
10 Amps
R
30 Amps
N
Load
S 10 Amps
10 Amps
T
E

Third harmonic filters
10 Amps
R
I3 =300 Amps
Amps
N
Load
S 10 Amps
v 10 Amps
T
E

Delta Interconnected-Star Transformer
R S T R S T

N
Harmonic reduction transformers
Load
I3
Interconnected Star
Transformer sized for
harmonic currents only

Isolating transformers
Delta-star isolating transformers reduce propagation

of harmonic current into the supply.
 Transformers should be adequately rated to

cope with the harmonics
 Although the transformer effectively

establishes a new neutral, don’t use half-sized
neutrals
 Provide a well rated four wire feed so that the

transformer can be isolated for service





Active filters
 Where the harmonic profile is unpredictable or

contains a high level of lower harmonics,
active filters are useful
 Active harmonic conditioners operate by

injecting a compensating current to cancel the
harmonic current

Harmonic solutions
 Keep circuit impedances low
 Rate neutrals and multi-core cables generously -

1.73 to 2 times normal size
 Always use true RMS meters
 Provide a large number of separate circuits to

isolate problem and sensitive loads
 Take harmonics into account when rating

transformers
 Provide appropriate filtration where required

www.cda.org.uk

Power Quality Partnership Harmonics in Power Systems: Copper Development Association

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Power Quality Partnership

Harmonics in Power Systems

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

Fluke (UK) Ltd

MGE UPS Systems Ltd

Rhopoint Systems Ltd

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

Background to Harmonics, Problems, Solutions and Standards

Harmonic Measurement and Power Quality Surveys

Total Harmonic Management

Applying Predictive Techniques to Power Quality

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

 Switched mode power supplies (SMPS)

 Electronic fluorescent lighting ballasts

 Variable speed drives

 Un-interruptible power supplies (UPS)

These are all non-linear loads

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

Six pulse bridge - harmonic current

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

Harmonic generating equipment has been in

• Increase in the number of loads

• Change in the nature of loads

• Increase in those producing triple-Ns

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

In balanced three phase systems the

But triple-N harmonics add arithmetically!

Non triple-N harmonics cancel in the neutral

Copper Development Association

P hase 1 Phase 2 P hase 3

P hase 1 3rd harmonic

P hase 2 3rd harmonic

P hase 3 3rd harmonic

0 120 240 360 480 600 720

3rd harmonic neutral current

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

Neutral currents can easily approach twice the phase

IEEE 1100-1992 recommends that neutral busbars

Neutral cables should have a cross-sectional area that

Copper Development Association

BS 7671:2001 - From January 2002

where neutral current is expected to exceed phase