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Soldering and welding

By: Dr. Swati Pawar

P.G. Frist year

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Contents

 Soldering definition
 History
 different temperatures
 Solders
 Flux
 Antiflux
 Considerations
 Factors affecting
 New solders
 Welding

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Introduction

“Necessity is the mother of all the inventions”

Since it is not possible to create a metal device in a single

piece. So, it is necessary to assemble it from separately
prepared parts . In dentistry the fabrication techniques
used are either:
 Soldering and welding
 Nuts and bolts
 Adhesives

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Metal joining operations

Are divided into three category:

 Soldering

 Welding

 Brazing

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 Soldering

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History

 The soldering technique has been known to man for

hundreds, maybe thousand years.

 However, with the industrial revolution in Europe as well

as North America, the need for higher temperatures and
more user-friendly tools emerged.

 The old methods of heating metals with coal fires etc.

were no longer practical.

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 It was discovered that when the vapor from heated alcohol
was ignited over a burning wick, it burnt with a very
concentrated flame of high temperature very suitable for
different heating purposes.

 Many different designs emerged using this technique and

these heating tools were generally called blow pipes.

 The first known patent is from France and is dated

January 7, 1791

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 After the Second World War, the propane gas emerged as
a cleaner and safer fuel for different heating purposes.

 The introduction of propane caused a lot of changes in the

blow lamp industry world-wide.

 The first appliances used had a metal frame work. The

attachment of axillaries to bring about the different type of
tooth movements required soldering of these parts.

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 Welding in orthodontics became popular after the arrival
of spot welders.

 It became popular because of the short time required, the

ease of welding and the absence of elaborate equipments.

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Definition

“It’s defined as the joining of metals by the fusion of filler

metal between them, at a temperature below the solidus
temperature of the metals being joined and below 450°C”
OR
Is a group of processes that join metals by heating them to
a suitable temperature below the solidus of the substrate
metals and applying a filler metal having a liquidus not
exceeding 450°C that melts and flows by capillary
attraction between the parts without appreciably affecting
the dimensions of the joined structure. (metals handbook
desk edition 1992)
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Solidus temperature:

 It is the temperatures at which metals of an alloy system become

completely solidified on cooling or start to melt on heating. (metals
handbook desk edition 1992) .

 The solidus is the highest temperature at which an alloy is solid –

where melting begins.

 The solidus quantifies the temperature at which melting of a substance

begins, but the substance is not necessarily melted completely.

 
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Liquidus temperature:

 It is the temperatures at which metals of an alloy system

begin to freeze on cooling or at which the metals
completely molten on heating.(metals handbook desk
edition 1992)

  Liquidus is the lowest temperature at which an alloy is

completely liquid.

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Schematic
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diagram of solidus an liquidus temperature of a rock. Dark blue color
indicates solid rock, red color indicates molten rock.
 Components of soldered joint

A soldered joint comprises of :

 Parent metal

 Solder/filler metal

 Fluxes and Anti fluxes

 A source of heat is also needed for whole soldering procedure.

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Parent metal
The parent metal is the metal or alloy to be joined.
This is also known as a substrate metal or basic metal.
Soldering operation is the same for any substrate metal, but
the ease of soldering is not same for any substrate metal.

The composition of parent metal determines:

 Melting range.

 Oxide that forms on the surface during heating.

 Wettability of the substrate by the molten solder.

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Solder

 Dental solders are alloys that are used as intermediary or a

filler metal to join two or more metallic parts.

 Fusion temperature should be lower than that of the parts

to be joined. Rule of thumb is that the flow temperature of
the filler metal should be 56°C (100°F) lower than the
solidus temperature of the substrate metal.

 Free flowing and should adequately wet the metal parts it

unites so that good adhesion is achieved.

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 Strength of the solder should be similar to that of metals
being joined.
 
 Should exhibit excellent tarnish and corrosion resistance
in oral environment.
 

18 Diagram showing solders sticks

Properties of solders

 Ease of flow at relatively low temperature.

 Sufficient fluidity to freely flow when melted.
 Ability to wet substrate metal.
 Strength compatible with that of the structure
being joined.
 Resistance to tarnish and corrosion.
 Acceptable color to give an inconspicuous
joint.
 Resistance to pitting during heating.

 
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 Classification of solder

solder

On the basis
Precious
of fusibility
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Soft solders
 They are lead- tin eutectic alloy with a low melting point.
Sometimes called as plumbers solder.

 They have low fusion range of about 260°C or less.

 Soft solders lack corrosion resistance, so they are

impractical for dental use.

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Hard solders
 Have much higher melting temperature

 Also possess greater hardness and strength properties

 
 e.g. dental gold and silver solders which also possess
good and corrosion resistance.
 

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Gold solders

 Has good tarnish and corrosion resistance.

 Extensively used for crown and bridge applications.

Composed of :
Metal Percentage

Gold 45- 81 wt%

Silver 80- 30 wt%
Copper 70-20 wt%

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 With small amounts of Tin, Zinc and Phosphorus to modify

fusion temperature and flow qualities.

They are high fusing with a fusion temperature range of

750- 900°C.

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 Zinc and tin reduce the fusion temp of the solder
below the casting alloys. Also increase fluidity of solder in
molten state and improve the mechanical properties.

 Copper is added to improve strength and lower the fusion

temp and to make it amenable to age hardening.

 Silver in large proportion than copper improves wetting of

gold solders. Also decreases the fusion temperature.

 Nickel may be added instead of copper if a white alloy is

desired.
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Silver solders
 Used in orthodontic appliances.

 They are low fusing , fusion temp 600-750°C.

 Used with stainless steel or other base metal alloys.

 Resistance to tarnish and corrosion is not as good as gold

solders.

 But have strength comparable to gold solders.

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composition
Metal percentage
Silver 10-80%
Copper 15-30%
Zinc 4-35%

small amounts of cadmium, tin and phosphorus.

The formation of silver-copper eutectic is responsible for the

low melting range of silver solder.
 

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Flux

 In Latin flux means “to flow”.

 Flux is to remove any oxide coating on the substrate metal

surface when the filler metal is fluid and ready to flow into
place.

 They protect the alloy surface from oxidation during

soldering and dissolve metallic oxides as they are formed.

 The resulting solution of oxides or other extraneous matter in

flux constitutes “slag”.
 
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Classifications of flux

1. According to primary purpose/ activity :

a. Surface protection type : This type of flux covers the metal

surface and prevents access to oxygen, so that no oxides can
form.
b. Reducing agent type : This type reduces any oxides present
and exposes clean metal.
c. Solvent type : This type dissolves any oxides and drives them
away.

The composition of most commercial fluxes is formulated to

accomplish two or more of these purposes.
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II. According to their composition :
a. Borax fluxes
b. fluoride fluxes

III. According to the pH of the flux :

Acidic fluxes : SiO2

Basic fluxes : Cao,

CaCO3.
Neutral fluxes : Fluorspar ( Ca.F2 )

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Borax ( Na2 B4O2)
Borax flux

 Are used for noble metal alloys.

 They are based on boric or borate compounds such as

boric acid/boric anhydrate and borax.

 They act as protective fluxes and reducing fluxes for low

stability oxides such as copper oxide.
 

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Supplied as
Liquid form :
 Solution of borax/boric acid in water.
 Indicated for soldering of orthodontic appliances and bridges in which
minimum amount of flux is required.

Paste form :
 Formed by mixing borax with petroleum jelly.
 Required when fluxes are needed in large quantity.

Powder form :
 Contains a mixture of borax, basic acid, silica flour and finely divided
charcoal.
 Charcoals reducing agent and silica holds molten flux in surface of hot
metal. This is usually used for casting operation.
 32
 a. Powdered flux b. Liquid flux

c. Paste flux
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Fluoride flux
 Used with base metal alloys.
 The oxides formed on base metal alloys are more stable
and fluorides are used to dissolve chromium, nickel and
cobalt-oxides. So it acts as solvent.

Composition
Substance Percentage
Potassium fluoride 50- 60%

Boric acid 25-35%

Borax glass 6-8%

34Potassium carbonate 8-10%
 As the choice of flux is dictated by the type of alloys to be
soldered, the fluoride flux is used with alloys containing
base metals even if a gold/silver solder is used.

 Some fluoride containing fluxes involve toxic fluorides

when heated, so inhalation of fumes should be avoided.

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Application of flux

  Painted on to the substrate metal at the junction of pieces to be

joined.

 Fused on to the surface of the filler metal strip.

 Whatever be the technique used the most important thing to

consider is the amount of flux used.

 Too little flux tends to burn off and will be ineffective.

 Excess flux remains trapped within filler metal and cause a

weakened joint.
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 Anti flux
 Materials used to restrict flow of solder are known as anti
flux.
 It is applied on the surface of specific area where the solder
should flow into.
 It is applied before applying flux or solder.
 E.g.: Graphite in the form of soft lead pencil. Disadvantage of
graphite is that it can burn off on prolonged heating at high
temperature. In such cases rouge or whiting (CaCO3 in
alcohol and water suspension) is used.

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Super flux

 A combination of high melting salts is used as fluxes to

combine the good characteristics of each ingredient and
create superior flux.

 A formula for efficient flux is

Borax glass – 55 parts
Boric acid – 35 parts
Silica - 10 parts

 The ingredients may be fused together and then crushed to

fine powder.
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Steps in soldering
 Cleaning and preparing the surfaces to be joined.

 Assembling the parts to be joined.

 Preparation and fluxing of the gap surfaces between the gaps.

 Maintaining the proper position of the parts during procedure.

 Control of proper temperature.

 Control of time to ensure adequate flow of the solder&

complete filling of the solder joint.
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Techniques of soldering

Based on technique used, soldering can be :

 
1. Investment soldering
 
2. Free hand soldering
 
3. Infra red soldering

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Investment soldering
 Recommended for precise arrangement of parts for
bridge work or partial denture with wrought wire clasp
arm.

 Used when area of contact between the metallic parts

being joined is large and whenever precision is needed in joining
the metals.

 Procedure involves embedding of the metallic parts

in an investment leaving a gap of about 0.13mm between the
metals.
 
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42
Free hand soldering
 Most commonly used in orthodontics

 Is done without use of an investment.

 
 Solder is generally melted onto one of the parts, then they
are held together and joint is heated.
 
 Named so because torches can be placed on bench so that
both hands are free to hold the parts in position.
 

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 Overheating the wires result in deterioration of
mechanical properties so orthodontic torches which
develop small needle like flames are used to limit the
heating to a small area around the joint.

 Overheating of stainless steel wires can lead to carbide

precipitation, which may soften the wire quenching
prevents embrittlement of solder by age hardening.

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Infrared soldering
 Instead of using a torch to provide heat, an infra red
heating unit is available specifically for dental soldering.

 Unit uses the light from 1000 walt tungsten filament

quartz iodine bulb, which is mounted at the primary focal
point of a gold plated elliptical reflector.
 
 Material to be soldered is placed at the reflectors
secondary focal point, at which the reflected infra red
energy of the tungsten source is focused.

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 The main problem in the use of this unit is locating the
focal centre of the light on the spot to be soldered.
 
 Failure to focus at the right spot can result in cold
joints that are porous.
 

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 Soldering armamentarium

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 a. flux b. solder

c. antiflux
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General considerations
Gap
 Should be neither too great nor too small.

 If the gap is too great, joint strength will be strength of the

filler metal.
 
 If it is too narrow, strength will probably be limited by
flux inclusions, porosity caused by incomplete flow of the
filler metal or both.
 A gap of 0.5 mm is considered to be adequate.

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Flame

The flame can be divided in to four zones:

 cold mixing zone (unburned gas)

 partial combustion zone (oxidizing)

 reducing zone

 oxidizing zone (burned gas)

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 The portion of the flame that is used to heat the soldering
assembly should be the neutral or slightly reducing part,
because this produces the most efficient burning process
and most heat.

 Flame application to the joint should be continuous and not

to be removed until the brazing is complete.

 Flame gives protection from oxidation especially at the

brazing temperature.

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52
 Improperly adjusted torch or improperly positioned flame
can lead to oxidation of the substrate or filler metal and
result in a poorly soldered joint.

 If unburned portion of flame is used carbon may be

introduced to the substrate or filler metal.

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Time

 Longer time increases the possibility of diffusion

between parent metal and filler metal.
 
 Shorter time increases possibility of incomplete filling
of joint and possibility of flux inclusion in the joint.
 
 Both conditions result in weaker joints.
 

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Soldering in orthodontics

 In orthodontic applications low temperature soldering is

used to prevent carbide precipitation and to prevent
excessive softening of the wire.

 Low fusing silver solders are used with a soldering

temperature range of 620-655°C.

 fluoride fluxes containing boric acid and potassium

fluoride in a 1:1 ratio also produce excellent soldered joints.

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 Free hand soldering technique is employed with a needle
like non luminous gas air flame is used.

 The work should be held 3mm beyond the tip of the blue
cone in the reducing zone of the flame.

 Soldering should be observed in a shadow, against a black

back ground, so that the temperature can be judged by the
color of the work.

 The color should never exceed a dull red.

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Soldering in dentistry
Soldering is used for various purposes in dentistry:

 Inlays

 Crowns

 Fixed bridgework

 Removable partial dentures

 Orthodontic appliances
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Soldering application in orthodontics

 Wire to wire

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 Tube can be soldered to bridge of adams clasp

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 Soldering of lingual arch and palatal arch

Lingual arch Transpalatal arch

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 Attachment of spring to arch wire through hooks

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 Quad helix

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 Adams soldered to labial bow act as retentive appliance

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Failure of soldering
Due to

 Failure to clean the parts to be joined.

 Improper fluxing

 Poor flow of solder

 Over heating of the solder can lead to pitted joint of low

strength

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Corrosion of soldered joint
 A consideration of the composition of silver solders reveals
that any material containing up to about 20 percent zinc and
20 to 30 percent copper with additions in some cases of low
cadmium and tin cannot remain inactive to physiologic
solutions.

 Weak corrosion-prone micro structural phases composed

mainly of copper and zinc has been shown to occur within
the solder itself.

 It is known that corrosion occurs when an electrolyte comes

into contact with a soldered joint.
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 The breakdown reaction between silver-soldered stainless
steel joints is an electrochemical process with no initial
evidence of gross macroscopic corrosion.

 After a time, many silver-soldered joints exhibit a change

in appearance such as darkening to resemble a tarnished,
corroded surface.

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New silver solders
 For joining stainless steel, additional alloys with improved
corrosion resistance are available.

New solders are:

 BAg -18
 BAg - 21

These silver soldering alloys have silver contents at about the

same level as the solder products presently employed, but they
have slightly higher copper contents, with additions of up to
about 10 percent tin for wetting stainless steels and up to about
3 percent nickel for immunity to crevice corrosion.

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 The important fact is that both cadmium and zinc are
removed from these alloys.

 The soldering (brazing) temperature range is between 700

and 900°C, in some instances about 200°C higher than the
presently employed products.

 Because of the non-free-flowing characteristics of these

proposed soldering alloys for dental applications,
familiarization with their properties and handling
characteristics is advisable.

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 Welding

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Definition

“It is joining two pieces of metal without the use of an

intermediatory alloy”.

OR
 Welding is fusion of two pieces of similar metals under
pressure without the introduction of third metal, the metal must
be softened by heat as well as compressed to achieve this .
OR
 It may also be defined as process of fusing two or more parts of
metals through the application of heat, pressure or both without
using a filler metal to produce localized union between two
parts.
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 Welding

Cold welding Hot welding

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Cold welding
 Cold welding is done by hammering or pressure. An
example of cold welding is the gold foil filling.

 Hot welding
 Hot welding uses heat of sufficient intensity to melt the
metals being joined. The heat source is usually an
oxyacetylene flame or high amperage electricity

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Parts of welding machine
An orthodontic welder consist of :
 Electric transformer
 Copper electrodes
 Pressure mechanism
 Timing

 Heat developed is directly proportional to I2RT where,

 I - The current
 R - The resistance
 T - Time of application

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74
Principle of welding
 Orthodontic spot welders employ the electrode technique
and are used instead of soldering in cases where the
heating cycle must be very short, in order to prevent
changes in the physical properties of the components
being joined.

 Orthodontic welding is achieved by passing a large

amount of current for a very short duration through an
area of high resistance. Heat is generated of a magnitude
great enough to cause melting at the interface.

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 Thus, in orthodontic welding, the resistance at the junction
between the two pieces of stainless steel being joined is much
greater than that of either the electrode or the stainless steel
masses.

 Because of this differential resistance, essentially all of the heat

generated by the current flow is contained within the weld area.

 As sufficient heat is generated at the weldmate-weldmate

interface, the stainless steel components soften, flow and fuse
together under the influence of mechanical pressure, forming a
weld nugget.

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Types of welding

Spot welding

Pressure welding

Laser welding

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Pressure welding
 If two metals are placed together and a sufficiently large
pressure is applied rectangular to the surface, pressure
welding occurs.
 
 Pure gold has no surface oxides but adsorbed gases prevent
metal to metal contact.
 
 If the force is applied rapidly so that the exposed surfaces can
be compressed together before surface gases adsorb and if the
applied force has a sufficiently large component parallel to
the surface to produce permanent distortions that expose film
– free metal, pressure welding results.
  78
 In pressure welding the problems of surface roughness is
overcome by large compressive forces. Eg:- gold foil (foil,
mat or powdered pure gold) restorations are pressure
welded by hand or mechanical condenses.

79
Laser welding
 A laser generates a coherent, high intensity pulse of light
that can be focused.
 
 By selecting the duration and intensity of the pulse, metals
can be melted in a small region without extensive micro
structural damage to surrounding areas.

 In laser welding of metals the beam is focused at the joint

to melt the opposing surfaces

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 Owing to the expansion form the locally high temperature,
and change of state, two liquid surfaces contact and form a
weld on solidification.

 Lasers can be directed at small regions and can apply high

energy to these regions in a very short amount of time.
This means there is very little heating of the total
appliance, except at the point of application.
 
 This procedure can be performed on the master cast.
 
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82
Spot welding
 Is a convenient method for uniting pieces of metal of the same
kind.

 Method is clean and quick and produces joints which are strong
and reliable.

 Most metals may be spot welded.

 Process consists of varying the temperature of pieces of metal to

be joined until the metal becomes plastic but not molten at the
site of joint and immediately applying pressure so that the metal
parts are squeezed together in their plastic state and become one.

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 Orthodontic spot welding

84
Variables and their misapplications

Welding of stainless steel depends on the proper use of

each of the following three variables:
 
1. The current flowing through the circuit.
 
2. The time during which the current is allowed to flow.
 
3. The mechanical pressure applied at the welding head.

 The improper application of these variables can result in either

over-
85 or under welding
An under welded assembly

 Insufficient current;
 The current passed for an insufficient amount of time
 Pressure applied inadequate in approximation.

Over welding
 yield as weak joint as under welding.
 Progressive corrosion. This occurs when chromium is
precipitated at the grain boundaries of each crystal..
 This process is known as weld decay.

  86
“ A satisfactory welded joint is one which is strong,
has not undergone oxidation (blackening), and has not
been over compressed during fusion”.

87
General considerations
 The weld mates should be clean of all extraneous materials
and oxides.

 The surface of each electrode must be smooth, flat, and

perpendicular to its long axis. When the electrodes are
together, they should be in total contact. If not, they should
be filed until total contact is achieved. Sparking and
localized over welding will result if interface contact is not
uniform.

 Adjust the welder to settings recommended by the

manufacturer.
88
 Select the proper electrode for the thickness or shape of the
material to be welded. A broad electrode should be used for
thin material and a narrow one for thick material. This will
allow sufficient heat to reach the weld area, but not over weld
or oxidize the weld mates.

 If too narrow an electrode is used in welding a bracket (thick)

to a band (thin), localized over welding will occur in the thin
material and under welding in the thick material .

 Proper electrode selection— a broad electrode for thin material
in conjunction with a narrow electrode for the thicker material
— will result in an even distribution of the weld nugget .
89
 Insert the weld mates between the electrodes, close them
together, and depress the weld button.
 
 If sparking is observed, localized over welding has
occurred. The electrodes should be checked for size and/or
contact. If black areas are seen at the points where the
electrodes contacted the weld mates, over welding has
occurred.

90
Orthodontic application
 To make an incisor or a molar band.

 For attachment of an auxiliary spring to arch wire.

 Securing attachments to bands.

 For fixed orthodontic appliances as compared to

removable once.

91
Strength of welded joint
In engineering application, spot and pressure welds have
strengths comparable to other forms of joining metals such
As soldering or arc welding . Laser welds are comparable to
soldered joints.

Corrosion resistance of welded joint

Welds in general are more susceptible to corrosion than the
surrounding metal. Spot welding in dentistry has been confined
to temporary appliances, where the results have been
satisfactory.

92
 Points to be kept in view for a successful
welding
 Mount the electrode correctly in the welder and adjust with parallel
precision to eliminate gaps.

 Weld together the wires of same material.

 Place the thinner wire in the groove of lower electrode.

 Use 1540 Newton of pressure .

 Set the voltage according to operator instruction.

 Use single electric impulse .

93
 Brazing

94
 It’s a term used industrially. Soldering operations at and
above 450o C is generally termed brazing .

 Most dental soldering procedures are actually brazing but

terms are interchangeably in dentistry .

 Brazing is defined as joining of metals by fusion of filler

metal between them, at a temperature below solidus
temperature of metals being joined and above 450o C.

95
 The American national standards institute (ANSI)
currently is considering a proposal to call all joining
operations in dentistry as brazing rather than soldering.

 Thus brazing may be the predominant term in the future.

96
 Soldering Welding Brazing
1 Third metal is introduced No third metal is used Third metal is
introduced

2 Temperature required is up to 450oC Temperature required Temperature required

can range up to 38oC is above 450oC

3 They are not heated up to melting point work pieces are Work pieces are
heated up to their heated below their
melting point melting point

4 Change in mechanical properties of parent Mechanical properties Change in mechanical

metal is negligible of metal may change properties of metal is
due to high negligible
temperature

5 Cost and skill involvement is low High skill is required Both cost and skill
involvement is
between the two

6 Pre heating is required is good quality No pre heat required Pre heat required
joint are required
97
Conclusion
 The choice of solder material has extreme importance in
determining the properties of the soldered joints.

 In orthodontics, silver solders are popular because of their

lower fusion temperatures and easy-handling
characteristics. It is also rationalized that both fixed and
removable orthodontic appliances are not meant to be
permanent; therefore, solders with properties inferior to
some of the higher-fusing solders can be tolerated.

98
 
 Spot welding is suitable only when the thickness of the
band or flange more or less corresponds to that of the
sheet to which it is to be welded, and should not be used
to join auxiliary springs and arch wires. One kind of
electrode is ample for spot welding in the construction of
orthodontic appliances.
 Although welding is one of the technical procedures most
commonly used by orthodontists, the process is usually
poorly understood and not employed efficiently.

99
 In the final analysis, however, the combination of
techniques which offer optimum mechanical, physical,
and chemical properties or offer the desired property with
the most favorable must be selected.

100
References

 Phillip’s science of dental materials- Anusavice

 dental materials –A programmed review of selected topics-
W.J.O’Brien
 Dental Materials – Craig.
 removable appliances – PC Adams
 Text Briefs: journal of clinical orthodontics 1969,april, page 207
 journal of clinical orthodontics 1969 November
 Robert E Binder. Orthodontic Welding journal of clinical orthodontics
Volume 1976 Feb(137 -): 139
 Charles J Burstone Welding of TMA Wire Clinical Applications –
Volume 1987 Sep(609 – 615)
 Dr. Heinz Winsauer. New Electrodes for Welding Orthodontic Wire
1991.25 : 01 : (30-34)
 Philip J. Corbin Easy and Accurate Welding of Attachments to Bands ,
101
journal of clinical orthodontics :2000 Volume 34 : Number 05 : (285)