Thermodynamics

Submitted by:
Allia T. Tuboro (editor/encoder)
Jefferson Yusay (encoder)
Vanessa Bianca Malinao (illustrator)
Archell Lee Amba
Aizy Pearl Elentorio
Fauline Fe Banquerigo

Submitted To:
Engr. Winston Gomez
Thermodynamics-is the branch of physics that deals with the
relationships between heat and other forms of energy. In particular, it
describes how thermal energy is converted to and from other forms of
energy and how it affects matter. 
I. Second Law of Thermodynamics.
The Three laws of Thermodynamics
By: Allia T. Tuboro

Thermodynamics is embodied by three laws.

• The first law, also known as Law of Conservation of Energy, states that energy cannot be created or destroyed in an
isolated system.
• The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of any isolated system always increases.
• The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature
approaches absolute zero.
• st  Law (Law of Conservation of Energy)
1

The first law of thermodynamics, also known as Law of Conservation of Energy, states that energy can
neither be created nor destroyed; energy can only be transferred or changed from one form to another. For
example, turning on a light would seem to produce energy; however, it is electrical energy that is
converted.

We can express it using the formula wherein the change of internal energy is the difference of heat (q)
and work(w.)

This law says that there are two kinds of processes, heat and work, that can lead to a change in the
internal energy of a system. Since both heat and work can be measured and quantified, this is the same as
saying that any change in the energy of a system must result in a corresponding change in the energy of
the surroundings outside the system. In other words, energy cannot be created or destroyed. If heat flows
into a system or the surroundings do work on it, the internal energy increases and the sign of q and w are
positive. Conversely, heat flow out of the system or work done by the system (on the surroundings) will
be at the expense of the internal energy, and q and w will therefore be negative.
2nd Law

The second law of thermodynamics says that the entropy of any isolated system always
increases. Isolated systems spontaneously evolve towards thermal equilibrium—the state of
maximum entropy of the system. More simply put: the entropy of the universe (the ultimate
isolated system) only increases and never decreases.

A simple way to think of the second law of thermodynamics is that a room, if not cleaned and
tidied, will invariably become more messy and disorderly with time – regardless of how careful
one is to keep it clean. When the room is cleaned, its entropy decreases, but the effort to clean
it has resulted in an increase in entropy outside the room that exceeds the entropy lost.
•   law of thermodynamics describes the relationships between thermal energy, or heat, and other forms of
This
energy, and how energy affects matter. The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed; the total quantity of energy in the universe stays the same. The Second Law of Thermodynamics is
about the quality of energy. It states that as energy is transferred or transformed, more and more of it is wasted.
The Second Law also states that there is a natural tendency of any isolated system to degenerate into a more
disordered state.

Although the second law of thermodynamics can be expressed in many ways, these statements are equivalent to
each other. One of the statements of the second law of thermodynamics is that “any spontaneous process in any
isolated system always results in an increase in the entropy of that system.” Since the universe is an isolated
system, this statement is mathematically expressed in the form:

Wherein Ssys is for the system and Ssurr is for the surroundings.

Note that the change in the entropy of the universe also gives the generation of entropy associated with the
irreversibilities, i.e.
3rd Law
The Third Law states, “The entropy of a perfect crystal is zero when the temperature of the crystal is equal to absolute zero (0 K).”
Basically, the third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature
approaches absolute zero and the key points are:
•At zero temperature, the system must be in a state with the minimum thermal energy.
•Mathematically, the absolute entropy of any system at zero temperature is the natural log of the number of ground states times
Boltzmann's constant (kB).
•For the entropy at absolute zero to be zero, the magnetic moments of a perfectly ordered crystal must themselves be perfectly
ordered.
The Third Law of Thermodynamics can be visualized by thinking about water. Water in gas form has molecules that can move
around very freely. Water vapor has very high entropy (randomness). As the gas cools, it becomes liquid. The liquid water
molecules can still move around, but not as freely. They have lost some entropy. When the water cools further, it becomes solid
ice. The solid water molecules can no longer move freely, but can only vibrate within the ice crystals. The entropy is now very low.
As the water is cooled more, closer and closer to absolute zero, the vibration of the molecules diminishes. If the solid water
reached absolute zero, all molecular motion would stop completely. At this point, the water would have no entropy (randomness)
at all.

Most of the direct use of the Third Law of Thermodynamics occurs in ultra-low temperature chemistry and physics. The
applications of this law have been used to predict the response of various materials to temperature changes. These relationships
have become core to many science disciplines, even though the Third Law of Thermodynamics is not used directly nearly as much
as the other two.
EXERGY
by: Jefferson Yusay

What is EXERGY?
Exergy is the energy that is available to be used. It is the maximum
useful work possible during a process that brings the system into
equilibrium with a heat reservoir, reaching the maximum entropy. When
the surroundings are the reservoir, Exergy is the potential of a system to
cause change as it achieves equilibrium with it’s surroundings. Exergy
becomes zero when the surroundings and the system reaches
equilibrium.
Why is it important to study
exergy?

Exergy analysis can help reduce irreversibility and increase the

efficiency for drying processes. Increased efficiency reduces the energy
required by drying systems for the production, transportation,
transformation and distribution of various energy forms.
 Carnot Cycle
by:Fauline Fe Banquerigo
The Carnot cycle is
  the ideal cycle against which all external combustion heat engines are usually compared, at least in the first
instance. The Otto cycle is the corresponding ideal cycle for comparison with internal combustion engine designs.

The Carnot cycle describes the maximum theoretical efficiency achievable with a perfect coolant and insulation properties with
optimum working conditions. As an ideal cycle its performance cannot be replicated in practise.

The Carnot cycle describes the transfer of heat from a source to a sink wherein some of this energy is directed to perform useful
work. The cycle comprises four individual stages: two of expansion and two of compression. The heat source is conventionally
assigned a temperature T1 and the sink a temperature T2.

We can solve the efficiency using this formula.

• 
PROBLEMS
1. If heat absorbed by the engine (Q1) = 10,000 Joule, what is the work done by the Carnot engine?

Given:
Low temperature () = 400 K
High temperature () = 800 K
Heat input (Q1) = 10,000 J
Unknown:
Work done by the Carnot engine (W)

 First, solve for the efficiency of the Carnot engine: e =

e=
e=
e=  Then, solve for the work done by the Carnot engine: W = e
e = 0.5
W=e
W = (0.5)(10000 J)
W = 5000 J or 5 kJ
 2. Based on graph below, the heat engine’s high temperature is
600 K and low temperature is 400 K. If the work done by the
engine is W, find the heat output in terms of W.
 Given:
Low temperature () = 400 K
High temperature () = 600 K

Unknown:
Heat output ()

 
First, we need to find the . Since e = , and e = , we can simplify
the formula to :
=
=
=
=
3W =
 Since heat input is equal to the sum of the heat output and the
work done by the engine: = + W , rearranging the equation we
get: = - W.
= -W
= 3W – W
= 2W
 3. Based on graph below, if the heat output is 3000 Joule, what
is the heat input?
 
Given:
Low temperature () = 500 K
High temperature () = 800 K
Heat output () = 3000 Joule
 
Find:
Heat input ()

•   we need to solve for the efficiency of the Carnot engine: e =

First,
e=
e=
e=
e=  Next, solve for the heat input in terms of W:
W=e
W=e
W = ()
=
 Since heat input is equal to the sum of the heat output and the
work done by the engine: = + W , rearranging the equation we
get: = - W.

= -W
= –W
= –
=
3 = 5W
W=

 
Now, solving for the numerical value of W:
W=
W=
W=
W = 1800 J
 Now, solving for the heat absorbed by the engine or heat input :
= +W

= +W
= 3000 J + 1800 J
= 4800 J or 4.8 kJ
 4. A Carnot engine absorbs heat at high temperature 800 Kelvin and efficiency of the Carnot engine is 50%. What
is the high temperature to increase efficiency to 80% if the low temperature kept constant.

 Given:
If High temperature () = 800 K, Efficiency (e) = 50% = 0.5
 
Find:
High temperature () if efficiency (e) = 80% = 0.8

 
First, we need to solve for the low temperature () using the efficiency formula: e =
e=
0.5 =
400 K = 800 K -
= 800 K – 400 K
= 400 K
 
Now, solving for the high temperature () if efficiency is
increased to 80% and low temperature will be kept constant.
e=
0.8 =
0.8 = - 400 K
400 K = - 0.8
400 K = 0.2
=
= 2000 K
 5. A Carnot engine works at high temperature 600 Kelvin with the efficiency of 40%. If the efficiency of the engine is
increased to 75% and the low temperature kept constant, what is the high temperature?

 Given:
If High temperature () = 600 K , Efficiency (e) = 40% = 0.4
 
Find:
High temperature () if efficiency (e) = 75% = 0.75

 
First, we need to solve for the low temperature () using the efficiency formula: e =
e=
0.4 =
240 K = 600 K -
= 600 K – 240 K
= 360 K
 
Now, solving for the high temperature () if efficiency is increased to 75% and low temperature will be kept constant.
e=
0.75 =
0.75 = - 360 K
360 K = - 0.75
360 K = 0.25
=
= 1440 K
 Reversed Carnot Cycle
By: Archell Lee Amba

• Carnot cycle is a totally reversible cycle which consists of two reversible isothermal processes and two

isentropic processes. It has the maximum efficiency for a given temperature limit. Since it is a reversible
cycle, all four processes can be reversed.

• Reversing Carnot Cycle does reverse the directions of heat and work interactions.

• A refrigerator or hear pump that operates or the reversed Carnpt CYCLE IS CALLED Carnot refrigerator
or a Carnot heat pump.

• The reversed Carnot Cycle is the most efficient refrigeration cycle operating between two specified
temperature levels.

• It sets the highest theoretical COP.

PROBLEMS
•theA  electric
1. household refrigerator with COP of 1.2 removes heat from the refrigerated space at a rate of 60kJ/min . Determine (a.)
power consumed by the refrigerator and (b.) the rate of heat transfer to the kitchen air.
Given:
COP= 1.2
QA= 60kJ/min
Required :
(a.) electric power consumed by the refrigerator
(b.) the rate of heat transfer to the kitchen air.
Solution:
(a.) the formula in getting the power is/are
a. W= QR-QA
b. W=
Since the heat rejected is not given well use (b) and substitute the given values.
W= = = 50kJ/min
Converting to the standard unit of power(watts)
W= 50 kJ/ min ( 1min/60sec) ) = 0.8333kW
•  .) The rate of heat transfer to the kitchen air can be determined using the formula QR= W+QA; where
(b
W=power QA= heat accepted
Given the values, we can now substitute it to the formula
QR= W+QA
QR=0.8333kW + 60kW/min
But since they are not expressed in the same unit, we have to convert kw/min to kW
=1kW
So now we can add the two values
QR=0.8333kW +1kW
QR=1.8333kW
2. A reversed Carnot cycle is used for refrigeration and rejects 1000kW of heat at 340 K while receiving a heat at 250 K
determine (a) the COP. (b) the power required, and (c) the refrigerating effect.

Given:
QR = 1000kW TH=340 K
TL=250 K

Required:
(a) The COP
(b) The power required
(c) The refrigerating effect
• 
Solution:
(a) The COP
-the coefficient of performance (COP) of reversible refrigerators or heat pumps, such as Carnot refrigerators or Carnot
heat pumps, the COP can be determined by
COP Simplifying this formula, we get..
COP=
COP=
where;
COP= coefficient of performance
TH= absolute temperature of the high temperature reservoir
TL= absolute temperature of the low temperature reservoir

 
Substituting the values:
COP=
COP=
COP= 2.7778
•   The formula for power required is,
(b.)
W= QR-QA ;
Where
W= work of the power required QR= heat rejected
QA= heat accepted
Substituting the QA is not given so, we are going to solve for Q A using this formula

Since we have all the given values, we can now use the formula for the power required
W= QR-QA (substituting the values)
W= 1000kW-
W= 264.7059 kW
(c.) The refrigerating effect
- The refrigerating effect is just the heat accepted. Since we already know that the value of QA is 735.2941 kW, we
can also conclude that the refrigerating effect is also equal to QA.
- To check if the answer is correct, we use the formula for refrigerating effect.
QA= QR- W
QA= 1000kW- 264.7059 kW
QA= 735.2941 kW

So the refrigerating effect is 735.2941 kW.

•   Athereversed
3. Carnot Cycle has a refrigerating COP of 4 (a.) What is the ratio min max T T? (b.) If the work input is 6kW, what will be
maximum refrigerating effect, kJ/min and tons.
Given:
COP=4 W=6kW
Required:
a. Ration
b. Maximum refrigerating effect in kJ/min and tons
Solution:
c. Ration We all know that the formula for coefficient of performance (COP) is COP= nut we have to simplify this
equation in order to find the ratio.)
( now we are going to separate the variables)
(simplifying Tmin)

Having this equation, we can now get the ration.

• 
Substituting the values.

or 1.25

b. Maximum refrigerating effect in kJ/min and tons.

The formula for refrigerating effect is/are.
QA= QR- W
QA=
QA=WCOP
Since the given values are just the coefficient of performance (COP) and the work input(W) , we can now only use the last
formula
Next is to substitute the values.
QA=WCOP
QA=(6kW) (4)
QA=24 kW
•   it asks for the maximum refrigerating effect in kJ/min and tons, we will do some conversion.
Since
-in kJ/min
QA=24 kW = 1440 kJ/min

- In tons
QA=24kW)= 6.8243 tons
•   Atemperature
4. reversed Carnot engine removes 40, 000 kW from a heat sink. The temperature of the heat sink is 260 K and the
of the heat reservoir is 320 K. Determine the power required the engine.
Given:
QA= 40000 kW
Tmin= 260 K
Tmax= 320 K
Required:
Power required of the engine (W)
- The formula for the power (W) is/are
a. W= QR-QA
b. W=
Since we don’t have the heat rejected, we`ll use the (b) formula. Since it requires the coefficient of performance (COP), well
solve if first using the formula.
COP= (Substituting the values)
COP= = 4.3333
Since we now have the value of COP, we can now solve for the power (W)
•   the formula
Using
W=

W=

W= 9230. 8402 kW
•rateAn
5.   ofair6kW.
conditioner removes heat steadily from a house at a rate of 750kJ/min while drawing electric power at a
Determine (a)the COP of this air conditioner and (b) the rate of heat transfer to the outside air.
Given: QA=750 kJ/min
W=6kW
Required: (a) the COP of the air conditioner (b) the rate of heat transfer to the outside air.
Solution:
(a) The COP of this air conditioner
As discussed earlier from the previous problems in getting the coefficient of performance of COP, we use he
formula
•   there are no temperature given, we cant use this formula.
Since
Given the values of QA and W, we can just use the formula in getting the coefficient of performance.
(simplify the equation to get the COP)
COP=

Having this formula. We can now solve for COP.

COP=2.0833

(b) The rate of heat transfer to the outside air, QR

In getting the rate of heat transfer to the outside air or simply the heat rejected we use the formula.
, where;
W= electric power
QA= heat accepted
Substitute the given values, we get
QR=W + QA
=6kW + 750 kJ/min (express kJ/min to kW to add them both)
= 6kW + 750 kJ/min (1 min/60sec) (1kW/1kJ/sec)
QR= 18.5 kW
 Second law of Efficiency
by: Aizy Pearl Elentorio
The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that no real process can be completely isentropic. Or, restated in terms
of exergy, no real process can use 100% of the exergy within a system.

Engineering aims to minimize the generation of entropy. Second-law efficiencies measure how successfully entropy
generation has been minimized in a device by comparing real processes to an equivalent idealized isentropic
process via their thermal efficiencies or COPs are appropriate:

  𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒

 
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 − 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 =𝑛h=
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑐𝑒
 

  𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 −𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒=𝑛h=
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒
Problems for Second law of Efficiency
1.) A heat engine receives heat from source at 1200 k at a rate of 500 kj/s and rejects the waste heat to a medium
at 300 k. The power output of the heat engine is 180 kw. Determine the reversible power and the irreversibility
rate for this process.
 
Given:
Tsink =300 k
Tsource = 1200 k
Qin = 500 kw

First, we draw the illustration:

 
Solution:
 
In order to find the reversible power, simply we used the thermal efficiency for the reversible heat engine.
 
Wrev = ꜧrev (Qin)
= 1 – Tsink/Tsource (Qin)
= 1 – 300/1200 (500)
= 1 – 0.25 (500)
= 0.75 (500)
Wrev = 375 KW > this is the maximum power that can be produced by heat engine.
 
Available power for the condition of sink at 300 K. So,
 
I = Wrev,out – Wu,out
= 375 – 180
I = 195 KW – loss due to irreversibility
In order there input heat is 500 KJ/s thus,
500 – 180 = 420 KW
Out of 420 KW, 195 KW is due to irreversibility and 125 KW is the heat which gets rejected to the sink. So this is not
available for conversion to work.
 
2.) A Carnot heat engine receives 500 KJ of heat per cycle from a high temperature heat reservoir at 652°C and reject
heat to a low temperature at 30°C. Determine:
a) The thermal efficiency of this Carnot engine.
b) The amount of heat rejected to the low temperature heat reservoir.
Given:
From the data given above,
Qh = 500 KJ
Tl = 30°C + 273 = 303 K
Th = 652°C + 273 = 925

First, we need to illustrate the problem :

 
Solution:
a) Using the equation in getting thermal efficiency,
ꜧth,rev = 1 – Tl/Th
= 1 – 303 K/925 K
= 1 – 0.3276
= 0.6724 or 67.24%
b) In getting the amount of heat rejected to the low temperature heat reservoir, we used
Ql/Qh = Tl/Th
From this formula, we derive
Ql = Tl/Th (Qh)
= 303 K/ 925 K (500)
= 0.3276 (500)
= 164 KJ
 
3. The pressure of water is increased by the use of a pump from 14 to 40 psia. A rise in the water temperature from
60°F (=520 R) to 60.2°F (=520.2 R)is observed. Determine the irreversibility(a), the second law efficiency(b), and the
isentropic efficiency of the pump(c).

 
First, we need to solve this as a first law problem:
Working Fluid: Water (incompressible)
System: Control Volume System
Process: Pump
State 1: State 2s (ideal): State 2a (actual)
= 60°F =? =60.2°F
= 14 psia = 40 psia = 40 psia  
Initial State: Fixed  
Final State: fixed  
= ????  
Q=0 
 a. To calculate for the irreversibility, we use:
i = (- ) – Q
Since Q = 0, we can reduce the formula into:
i = (- )
i = (- )
i = (537)()[ln()] – 0
i = (537)(1.0014)[ln()] – 0
i = 0.2068

 b. For determine the second law efficiency, we need to solve for both the actual work and the reversible work.
Starting with the actual work, we have:
= - +Q
= [ ( - )] + ( - ) – 0
= (1.0014)(60 - 60.2) +
= -0.2774

Now, for the reversible work:

=i+
=i+
= (0.2068 ) + (-0.2774 )
= -0.0706
 We can now solve for the second law efficiency:
=
=
=
= 0.255

 c. To determine the isentropic efficiency, we must first calculate the ideal work. Recognizing that in a isentropic
process, the water will not change temperature, we can write:
= (-)
= (-)
=
= -0.0771

 Finally, solving for the isentropic efficiency is:

=
=
=
= 0.2781
  . Carbon dioxide undergoes an isothermal reversible process from 250 kPa and 300°C to 500 kPa. Determine the heat
4
transfer per mass by using the first law and evaluating the boundary work from . Compare this to the heat transfer per
mass calculated from the entropy change and the second law.

  We first solve this as a first law problem:

a.
Working Fluid: CO2 (ideal gas)  
System: Closed System  
Process: Isothermal, Reversible  
State 1 : State 2:
= 300C = 573K = T1 = 573K
= 250 kPa = 500 kPa
= 369.23 kJ/kg = 369.23 kJ/kg
= 5.478 kJ/(kg K) = 5.478 kJ/(kg K)
= 0.433 /kg = 0.2165 /kg
(*note: u, , and v values are taken from ideal gas relationship)
 
Initial State: Fixed
Final State: fixed
=0
Q = ???
= ????

Since an ideal gas is undergoing an isothermal process, the boundary work becomes:
= RT·ln()
= (0.1889)(573)[ ln () ]
= -75.03
 Using the first law, we can solve for the heat transfer, Q:
Q= - +
Q= - +
Q = (369.23) – (369.23) + (-75.036)  
Q = -75.03
Now, solving using the second law we have:
Q= (-)
Q= (-)
Q = [- - R·ln]
Q = 573[5.478 – 5.478 – (0.1889) ln ()]
Q= (573)[-1889ln(2)]
Q= -75.03
(*note: using the two ways of calculation, heat transfer is the same)
   An innovative way of power generation involves the utilization of geothermal energy, the energy of hot water that exists
5.
naturally underground (hot springs), as the heat source. If a supply of hot water at 140°C (413 K) is discovered at a location
where the environmental temperature is 20°C(293 K), determine the maximum thermal efficiency a geothermal plant built
at that location can have. If the power output of the plant is to be 5 MW, what is the minimum mass flow rate of hot water
needed?
 (Use =4.1978 kJ/kg·K)
First, we need to sketch the device interaction:
 The maximum thermal efficiency occur when the heat engine operates as a Carnot cycle, thus:
= =
=
=
=
= 0.29056

 Since the minimum mass flow rate of hot water corresponds to the maximum thermal efficiency, thus:
=
=
=
= 17,208 kW
 
Performing a first law analysis on the hot water stream we have: Q = m( - ) , since ( - ) = ( - ) , we can derive the
equation into: m = . Assuming the hot water is cooled down to the environment temperature, then m =
m=
m=
m=
m = 32.2
II.RANKINE CYCLE
by: Allia T. Tuboro
Thermodynamic cycles can be divided into two general categories: power cycles, which produce a net power
output, and refrigeration and heat pump cycles, which consume a net power input. The thermodynamic power
cycles can be categorized as gas cycles and vapor cycles. In gas cycles, the working fluid remains in the gas phase
throughout the entire cycle. In vapor cycles, the working fluid exits as vapor phase during one part of the cycle and
as liquid phase during another part of the cycle.
Steam power plants run vapor power cycles with water as the working fluid. This section introduces the ideal cycle
for vapor power cycle - Rankine cycle.
 Ideal Rankine Cycle
The Rankine cycle is the fundamental operating cycle of all power plants where an operating fluid is continuously evaporated and
condensed. The selection of operating fluid depends mainly on the available temperature range. Figure 1 shows the idealized Rankine
cycle.
The pressure-enthalpy (p-h) and temperature-entropy (T-s) diagrams of this cycle are given in Figure 2. The Rankine cycle operates in
the following steps:

1-2-3 Isobaric Heat Transfer. High pressure liquid enters the boiler from the feed pump (1) and is heated to the saturation temperature
(2). Further addition of energy causes evaporation of the liquid until it is fully converted to saturated steam (3).

3-4 Isentropic Expansion. The vapor is expanded in the turbine, thus producing work which may be converted to electricity. In
practice, the expansion is limited by the temperature of the cooling medium and by the erosion of the turbine blades by liquid
entrainment in the vapor stream as the process moves further into the two-phase region. Exit vapor qualities should be greater than 90%.

4-5 Isobaric Heat Rejection. The vapor-liquid mixture leaving the turbine (4) is condensed at low pressure, usually in a surface
condenser using cooling water. In well designed and maintained condensers, the pressure of the vapor is well below atmospheric
pressure, approaching the saturation pressure of the operating fluid at the cooling water temperature.

5-1 Isentropic Compression. The pressure of the condensate is raised in the feed pump. Because of the low specific volume of liquids,
the pump work is relatively small and often neglected in thermodynamic calculations.
•   efficiency of power cycles is defined as
The

Values of heat and work can be determined by applying the First Law of Thermodynamics to each step. The steam quality
x at the turbine outlet is determined from the assumption of isentropic expansion, i.e

All four components associated with the ideal Rankine cycle are steady-flow devices, and thus all four processes that make
up the Rankine cycle can be analyzed as steady-flow process. The kinetic and potential energy changes of water are small
relative to the heat and work terms, are thus neglected. Energy analysis of the four components are given below.
One of the major advantages of the Rankine cycle is that the compression process in the pump takes place on a liquid. By
condensing the working steam to a liquid (inside a condenser) the pressure at the turbine outlet is lowered and the energy
required by the feed pump consumes only 1% to 3% of the turbine output power and these factors contribute to a higher
efficiency for the cycle.
Today, the Rankine cycle is the fundamental operating cycle of all thermal power plants where an operating fluid is
continuously evaporated and condensed. It is the one of most common thermodynamic cycles, because in most of the
places in the world the turbine is steam-driven.
In contrast to Carnot cycle, the Rankine cycle does not execute isothermal processes, because these must be performed
very slowly. In an ideal Rankine cycle, the system executing the cycle undergoes a series of four processes: two isentropic
(reversible adiabatic) processes alternated with two isobaric processes.
Actual Rankine Cycle
•   actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle as a result of irreversibility in
The
various components. The two common source of irreversibility are the friction and undesired heat
loss to the surroundings. Fluid friction causes pressure drops in the boiler, the condenser, and the
connecting pipes. To compensate for these pressure drops, the water needs to be pumped to a
higher pressure. Heat loss from steam to surroundings takes place when steam flows through the
connecting pipes and the various components. To maintain the same work output, more heat needs
to be transferred to the steam in the boiler. The deviation of actual pumps and turbines from the
isentropic ones can be accounted for by utilizing adiabatic efficiencies:
IDEAL RANKINE CYCLE VS ACTUAL RANKINE
The efficiency of the ideal Rankine cycle as described in the earlier section is close to the efficiency of Carnot Cycle. But in
real plants, each stage of the Rankine cycle is associated with some irreversible processes and thus the efficiency of the
actual Rankine cycle is far lower than the ideal Rankine cycle efficiency.
Given below Fig. 1-a and Fig 1-b represents the Rankine cycle on P-v and T-s diagram
Critical Point (CP) is in centre of the curve as shown in Fig 1-a and 1-b above. The curved lines on the left side of the
CP are saturated- liquid lines and the region/area to the left of these lines are called as sub-cooled liquid regions.
Similarly curved lines on the right side of the CP are saturated- vapour lines and the region/area to the right of these
lines are called as super-heat vapour regions.

Energy Analysis of Ideal Rankine Cycle

All components of Rankine cycle (boiler, turbine, condenser and pump) are examples of steady flow process and to
be analysed accordingly. Energy balance for the Ideal cycle is as follows:
Energy Analysis of Actual Rankine Cycle
The actual vapour cycle differs from the ideal Rankine Cycle, as a result of irreversibility in various components.
Two major factors of irreversibility are Fluid friction and the heat loss.
Fluid Friction
It causes major pressure drop in the boiler circuitry and also in the condenser and the piping circuit of the low
pressure piping. Because of the fluid friction pressure drop in the boiler circuitry, the pressure of the steam leaving
the boiler will be at somewhat lower pressure. Also the steam has to be conveyed to steam turbine via steam piping
which also accounts for further pressure drop. So the steam which reaches the turbine stop valve will be at lower
pressure than that of the boiler discharge pressure and the same is represented by 3’ (Fig-1a) in the actual Rankine
Cycle instead of 3 in the Iideal Rankine Cycle.
If we don’t want to compromise on the turbine output, then we must compensate for the pressure drop/loss and
restore the turbine inlet pressure to point 3 in Fig 1-a, by increasing the boiler pump pressure sufficiently higher to
compensate the losses/drop and in the process increasing the size of the pump and the requirement of input power.
The other reason of irreversibility is the loss of heat in steam in its transportation and malfunctioning of the steam
traps etc. Thus in order to compensate for these losses we need to generate more steam and that too at higher
pressure for the desired rated power generation from the turbine, as a result lowering the cycle efficiency.
Energy balance for the actual Rankine Cycle is as follows:
While calculating the over all cycle efficiency Turbine and pump irreversibilities needs to be given due importance.
For small units usually pump work are negligible and can be neglected but in larger units pump work is appreciable and
can’t be neglected like that.
Actual/Practical Rankine cycle is based on the deviation of flow in turbine and pressure requirement in pump from the
isentropic one and is defined as follows:
                                    

Where,
h2a Actual enthalpy at the pump exit
h4a Actual enthalpy at the turbine exit
h2s Ideal isentropic enthalpy at the pump exit
h4s Ideal isentropic enthalpy at the turbine exit
II. REHEAT CYCLE
by: Fauline Fe Banquerigo
REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE
It is essentially a modification of simple rankine cycle. In reheat rankine cycle, the following improvements are made to
increase the efficiency of rankine cycle.

°Lowering the condenser pressure

°Increasing the temperature of steam while entering the turbine
°Large variation in pressure between boiler and condenser
°Implementation of reheat and regenerative system in the cycle

In simple rankine cycle, after the isentropic expansion in turbine , steam is directly fed into condenser for condensation
process. But in reheat system, two turbines (high pressure turbine and low pressure turbine) are employed for improving
efficiency. Steam, after expansion from high pressure turbine, is sent again to boiler and heated till it reaches superheated
condition. It is then left to expand in low pressure turbine to attain condenser pressure.
THE ACTUAL REHEAT CYCLE
Any presence of the following conditions will make the ideal reheat cycle an actual one.
A. Pressure drop in the boiler/steam generator.
PB ≠ P1 ; P1 < PB'
B. Pressure drop in the steam line (1 - 1')
Pr < P1 ; P1 ≠ Pr
t1' < t1 ; t1 ≠ t1'

C. Pressure drop in the heater.

P2' > P3' ; P2' ≠ P3'

D. Pressure drop in the condenser.

P4' ≠ P5 ; P5 < P4'

E. Irreversible adiabatic expansion process.

S2' ≠ S1' and S4' ≠ S3'
Qloss = 0, but
S2' > S1' and S4' > S3'
F. Polytropic expansion process.
Qloss ≠ 0 and S1' ≠ S2' and S4' ≠ S3'

G. Heat losses in the steam line (1 - 1')

H. Inefficient pump.
pump efficiency < 100%

I. Pressure drop in the feedwater line.

PB' < PB

CYCLE ANALYSIS

A. Heat Added, QA'

QA' = QB' + QRH'
QA' = (h1 - hB') + (h3' - h2’)

B. Heat Rejected, QR'

QR = h4' - h5

C. Engine work, W'

W = h1' - h2' + h3' - h4'  (if irreversible adiabatic expansion process)
W = h1' - h2' + h3' - h4' - Qloss  (if polytropic expansion process)
D. Net Cycle Work, Wnet'
Wnet' = W' - Wp'

E. Actual Pump Work, Wp'

Wp' = ideal pump work / pump efficiency

F. Thermal Efficiency, ec'

ec' = (W' - Wp') / QA'
THE IDEAL REHEAT CYCLE
Increasing the boiler pressure can increase the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle, but it also increases the moisture
content at the exit of the turbine to an unacceptable level. To correct this side effect, the simple Rankine cycle is modified
with a reheat process. The schematic of an ideal reheat Rankine cycle is shown on the T-s diagram. In this reheat cycle,
steam is expanded isentropically to an intermediate pressure in a high-pressure turbine (stage I) and sent back to the boiler,
where it is reheated at constant pressure to the inlet temperature of the high-pressure turbine. Then the steam is sent to a
low-pressure turbine and expands to the condenser pressure (stage II) . The total heat input and total work output is
qin = qprimary + qreheat = (h3 - h2) + (h5 - h4)
wtotal, out = qturb, I + qturb, II = (h3 - h4) + (h5 - h6)
Process 1 - 2 is a partial isentropic expansion in the turbine, s = c
Process 2 - 3 is a constant pressure resuperheating in the reheater, p = c
Process 3 - 4 is a complete isentropic expansion in the turbine, s = c
Process 4 - 5 is a constant pressure rejection of heat in the condenser, p = c
Process 5 - B is an adiabatic pumping process, s = c
Process B - 1 is a constant pressure addition of heat in the boiler, p = c

Cycle analysis:

A. HEAT ADDED,QA

Energy Balance Energy Balance

Ein=Eout Ein=Eout
QB+hB=h1
Qrh+h2=h3
QB=h1-hB
Qrh=h3-h2
B. Heat Rejected, QR D. Pump Work, Wp
Ein=Eout
Exact pump work
h4=h5+QR Ein=Eout
QR=h4-h5 Wp=h5+hB
Wp=hB+h5

C.Engine Work,W
Ein=Eout
h1+h3=h2+h4+W
W=h1-h2+h3-h4

Another means of determining

engine work is by getting the sum E.Net cycle Work,Wnet
of by the steam during
the different stages of expansion
W=W1-2 +W3-4 Wnet=Engine work-Pump work
W=h1-h2+h3-h4
IV. REGENERATIVE CYCLE
by: Vanessa Bianca Malinao
Regeneration in thermodynamic process refers to a method where the certain quantity of heat abstracted
from the steam is utilized to heat the water. The regeneration process occurs between the stages of turbine
and pump respectively. Using regeneration, the efficiencies of thermodynamic cycles can be improved.

• In the regenerative cycle, the dry saturated steam from the  boiler enters the turbine at a higher
temperature and then expands entropically to a lower temperature in the same way as that of Rankine and
Carnot cycle. Now the condensate from condenser is pumped back and circulated around the casing, in the
direction opposite to the steam flow in turbine. The steam is thus heated before entering into the boiler.
Such a system of heating is known as regenerative heating, as the steam is used to heat the steam itself.

• The principle of a regenerative cycle is to recover some of the exhaust heat and transfer it to
the combustion air. This can only be achieved if the turbine exhaust temperature is greater than the
compressor exit temperature, and therefore implies that the optimum cycle pressure ratios are lower than
those of the optimized simple cycle gas turbines.
 IDEAL REGENERATIVE CYCLE
The ideal regenerative cycle has efficiency equal to that  efficiency of Carnot cycle with the same heat supply and heat rejection
temperatures.

➡In order to increase the mean temperature of heat addition (Tm1), attention was so far confined to increasing the amount of heat
supplied at high temperatures, such as increasing superheat, using temperature of steam, and using reheat. The mean temperature of
heat addition can also be increased by decreasing the amount of heat added at low temperatures. In a saturated steam Rankine cycle
shown in figure 1.3. Considerable part of the total heat supplied is in the liquid phase when heating up water from 4 to 4’ at a
temperature lower than T1, the maximum temperature of the cycle.

➡For maximum efficiency, all heat should be supplied at T1 and feed water should enter the boiler at state 4’. This may be
accomplished in what is known as an ideal regenerative cycle.

➡The slopes of lines 1-2 and 4’-3 (Fig. 1.3) will be identical at every temperature and the lines will be identical in the contour. Areas 4-
4’-b-a-4 and 2’-1-d-c-2’ are not equally but congruous. Therefore, all the heat added from an external source (Q1) is at the constant
temperature T1, and all the heat rejected (Q2) is at the constant temperature T2 both being reversible then,
•for the
The efficiency of the ideal regenerative cycle is thus equal to the Carnot cycle efficiency then the steady flow energy equation
turbine

The pump work remains the same as in the Rankine cycle, i.e.

Wp = h4 – h3

net work output of the ideal regenerative cycle is thus less, and hence its steam rate will be more, although it is more
efficient, when compared with the Rankine cycle. 

➡The ideal regenerative cycle is not practicable because heat exchanger in turbine is mechanically impracticable and there is
high moisture content of steam in the turbine.
 Actual Regenerative Cycle
In actual steam power cycles regeneration is effected with
the aid of surface-type or direct-contact regenerative
feed-water heaters, either of which is supplied with steam
from intermediate turbine stages (the regenerative take­
off). The steam condenses in the regenerative feed-water
heaters FWH 1 and FWH 2 heating the feed water which
is delivered to the boiler. Heating steam condensate is
also delivered to the boiler or mixes with the main flow
of feed water .Strictly speaking, the regenerative cycle of
a steam power plant cannot be represented on a two-
dimensional T-s diagram, since this diagram is plotted for
a constant amount of working medium, whereas in a
regenerative cycle, involving the use of regenerative
feed-water heaters, the quantity of the
working medium varies along the turbine blading.
Therefore, in investigating the cycle plotted on a flat T-s diagram, the hypothetical nature of this representation should be
borne in mind; for emphasis, a diagram representing the rate of steam flow through the turbine along its blading is shown
adjacent to the T-s diagram. This new diagram pertains to line 1-2 on the T-s diagram, the line of adiabatic expansion of
steam in the turbine. Thus, on the section 1-2 of the cycle, shown on the T-s diagram, the quantity of the working medium
diminishes with a drop in pressure, and along the section 5-4 the quantity of the working medium increases with rising
pressure (heating steam condensate is added to the feed water).
V. REHEAT REGENERATIVE CYCLE
by: Archell Lee Amba
 REHEAT REGENERATIVE CYCLE
As the pressure increases for a particular initial temperature, the amount of liquid in the exhaust increases. Since
the materials used must not be subjected to temperatures that weaken them unduly, a plan used for lower exhaust
moisture level in high pressure plants is to reheat the steam to the practical limit temperature after a partial
expansion (reheat-regenerative cycle). 

The various points of the two figures have corresponding numbers. Let 1 lb of throttle steam be the basic unit.
Since m1 lb of steam go to feedwater heater (3) at the place where reheating starts, the amount of steam to the
reheater is 1 - m1 lb. By the same approach as before, we have
•  Wout = h1 - h2 + (1-m1) (h3-h4) + (1-m1-m2) (h4-h5) + (1-m1-m2-m3) (h5-h6) BTU/lb throttle steam
a)
b) Wnet = ∮ dW = Wout - | ΣWp |

The total pump work ΣWp is given by this equation  for the three-stage heating, or an analogous equation for a
different number of heaters; but see this equation,

(c) l Wp4 l BTU/lb throttle steam 

where h10 + Wp4 = hB10 and the term (1-m1)(h3-h2) represents heat supplied in the reheater. The thermal efficiency is 
e = Wnet/QA

The energy chargeable against the engine is

d) Ec = h1 - h10 + (1 - m1) (h3-h2) [ ideal engine ]
e) Ec' = h1 - h10' + (1 - m1') (h3-h2') [ actual engine]
each in BTU/lb of steam at the throttle, where, in any case, 10,10' represent liquid leaving the last feed water heater
and the second term is the heat added during resuperheating.
This is an example of a large reheat-regenerative turbine.
VI. INCOMPLETE EXPANSION CYCLE
by: Aizy Pearl Elentorio
 Incomplete Expansion Cycle

James Watt invented and developed the principal features of the reciprocating steam engine. Since it seldom
expands the steam to the exhaust pressure, a fairer standard comparison would be an ideal incomplete expansion
engine without clearance. Since the enclosed area 1-2-3-ab represents work, we have the engine work as:
W = – + (-)
Where – is represented by the area b-1-2-d. For computing the thermal efficiency, use = – , with the credit of the
liquid enthalpy at the exhaust :
e= =

The diagram (a) may be thought of as a conventional indicator card for an engine without clearance. Only 1-2 is
a thermodynamic process involving constant mass. Intake b-1, where 1 is the point of cut-off expansion 1-2;
exhaust valves opens at 2, the point of release, and pressure drops instantaneously to exhaust pressure ideally;
3-a is exhaust. The actual expansion will be with increasing entropy, say 1-2-e in (b).
 
Imagine that the intake and exhaust are via large, perfectly insulated plenum chambers wherein the state of the working
substance is steady and in virtual equilibrium (state 1,e,e’), the average condition of the exhaust can be estimated as for a
steady-flow engine, that is = – W and ’ = – W’ , where the actual fluid work W’ is closely obtained as the indicated work , an
estimation of state e’ is needed for the condenser design. For reciprocating engines let W’ = ’. In addition, if in Rankine cycle
the adiabatic expansion of steam is not completed, it is called the incomplete expansion cycle or modified Rankine cycle. This
cycle is mainly employed in steam engine power plants. In this cycle the expansion is terminated at a release pressure ‘P R’
which is above the condenser pressure ‘PL’ and then steam is released at constant volume to the condenser pressure. 
Fig. 1. Modified Rankine cycle of steam engine power plant
Fig. 2. Modified Rankine cycle on p-v and T-s diagrams

Advantage of expansion of steam up to release pressure P2': It can be seen that work output represented by hatched
area (called toe) is very small. However, it increases the size of engine cylinder. Sometimes, it even does not equal
the work being lost through friction etc. Therefore, the expansion is terminated at point 2' itself. Such a cycle is
called Modified Rankine Cycle. So cycle 1-2'-3'-3-4-5-1 is Modified Rankine Cycle.
  
Total heat addition in boiler, (Process 4-5-1: Heat addition in boiler): qA= 4q1 =  hg,1 – hsub,4  
Since   4w1 = 0  (from 1st law of thermodynamics for flow process)
Net work done during cycle:
wnet = 1w2' + 2'w3' − 3w4
= (hg,1 – h2')  +  -  (hsub,4 – hf,3) 
= (hg,1 – h2')  + v2' (p2' – p3)- (hsub,4 -hf,3)
Where  3W4 = (hsub,4 – hf,3)   is  pump work , Wp, therefore Thermal efficiency:
== =

In a Modified Rankine cycle, the pump work may be neglected as it is very small compared with other energy transfers.
Hence we have, wp= 0.  
Modified Rankine cycle on p-v and T-s diagrams (neglecting pump work) is shown in Figure 3.
 
Total heat addition in boiler in process 3-1 is given by,
qA = 3q1  = (hg,1 - hf,3) ;   since 3w1  = 0 (from 1st law of thermodynamics for flow process)
Net work done during cycle:
wnet = 1w2' + 2'w3'
  = (hg,1– h2′)  + v2' (p2' – p3)
Therefore,  thermal efficiency:

== =
VII. TOPPING CYCLE
by: Jefferson Yusay
TOPPING CYCLE
Topping cycle is the process of using fuel to generate mechanical
energy which is used to create electricity using a generator. The
resulting waste heat is captured from this process to heat water for use
as hot water or steam throughout the facility. The fuel supplied is used
to first produce power and then thermal energy, which is the by-
product of the cycle and is used to satisfy processed heat or other
thermal requirements. Topping cycle cogeneration is widely used due
to their versatility.
4 TYPES OF TOPPING CYCLE
1. Combined-cycle topping system
As shown in the figure, a gas turbine or diesel engine producing electrical or mechanical power
followed by a heat recovery boiler to create steam to drive a secondary steam turbine.
2. Steam-turbine topping system

This type of system burns any type of fuel to produce high-pressure steam that then passes trough a steam
turbine to produce power with the exhaust provides low-pressure steam. (see fig)
3. Heat-recovery topping system

This system employs heat recovery from an engine exhaust and/or jacket cooling system flowing to a heat
recovery boiler, where it is converted to process steam/hot water for further use. (see image below)
4. Gas-turbine topping system

A natural gas turbine (2) drives a generator (1). The exhaust gas goes to a heat recovery boiler (3) that makes
processed steam (6) and process heat (4 and 5).
VIII. SOLVED PROBLEMS
 9.1(Solved by: Allia Tuboro)
A thermodynamic cycle with elements as described in 9.1 operates as follows: engine produces 22.4 kW; hot body supplies
4220kJ/min; small pump (to circulate working substance) absorbs 2kW. Sketch the system and calculate (a.) the net work (b.)
the heat rejected, and (c) the thermal efficiency.
 
Take note Energy Balanced:
Ein=Eout
 
a. Wnet= W-Wp
 
W=h1-h2 (formula for the engine)
 

W=22.4kW (power that was being produced)

Wp=hB-h3

Wp=2 kW (power that absorbs)

Wnet= 22.4 kW-2kW (since we are looking for the net

power, we will subtract the two values)

W =20. 4 kW
b. Heat rejection that happens in condenser
Energy Balanced:
Ein=Eout
QR=h2-h3 ; h3=hf2
Since there are no temperature given, we would solve this using algebraic equations
h 2= h1-W
h3=hB-Wp
 
QR=(h1-w)-(hB-Wp)
=(h1-hB)+Wp-W ; h1-hB=QA
 
Take note: Ein=E out of Boiler
 
QA= (h1-hB)= 4220 kJ/min (heat applied)
 
Thus,
 
QR= 4220kJ/min + (2kg/s – 22.4 kg/s) (60s/min)
QR= 2996 kJ/min
 
c. ee= (now we are going to input the values we have gathered)
=
 
= 29.00473934%
=29%
•   (Solved by: Fauline Fe Banquerigo; credits to: Raphael Ramirez )
9.2
An experimental geothermal energy system in Baja, California, consist of a hot water well, a flasher –separator –
collector, and a 10 000-kW Rankine engine. The pressure ground water at 172.4 bar, 282 leaves he well to enter the
flash chamber maintained at 13.8 bar (hf=329, hfg=1961 kJ/kg). The flashed vapor passes through the separator and
collector to enter as saturated vapor at 13.8 bar ; the turbine exhausts at 1 bar. The unflushed water runs to waste,
Find the hourly amount of groundwater required for continuous operation. Use table II for the compressed liquid
state.
Given:
= 1100 psia x = 7.58214286 MPa
= 1100°F – 32 / 1.8 = 593.3333333°C
= 80 psia x = 0.55142857 MPa
= 0.9492 psia x = 0.0065427 MPa
= 100°F – 32 / 1.8 = 37.7777778°C
Solution:

15 17.24 17.5
280 1232.1 a 1231.3
282 h
300 1373.3 b 1335.2

A.

15 1232.1
17.24 a
17.5 1231.3
 
(15 - 17.24) / (15 - 17.5) = (1232.1 - a) / (1232.1 - 1231.3)
a = 1231.3832
 B.

15 1337.3
17.24 b
17.5 1335.2
 
(15 - 17.24) / (15 - 17.5) = (1337.3 - b) / (1337.3 - 1335.2)
b = 1335.4184
C.

280 1231.3832
282 h
300 1335.4184
 
(280 - 282) / (280 - 300) = (1231.3832 - h) / (1231.3832 -
1335.4184)
h1 = 1241. 78672 kJ/kg
 Step 2
 
[Pressurized water enters the flash chamber with no loss or gain of energy. Therefore, h1 = h2]
h1 = h2 = 1241.78 kJ/kg
hf1 = hf2 = 829
hfg1 = hfg2 = 1961
 
h2 = hf + x2hfg
x2 = (h2 - hf) / hfg
x2 = (1241.78672 - 829) / 1961
x2 = .2104980724
Step 3
Step 4
 
 
h3 = hg2 (Steam entering the turbine/engine is saturated
vapor) s3 = s4 = sg (From the graph)

h3 = hg2 = hfg2 + hf2 s3 @ 13.8 bar = 1.38 mPa

h3 = 1961 + 829 sg = 6.4743

h3 = 2790 kJ/kg Therefore,

s3 = 6.4743
s4 = 6.4743
 
@ 1 bar = 0.1 mPa
sf4 = 1.3026
sfg4 = 6.0568
 
 
s4 = sf4 + x4sfg4
x4 = (s4 - sf4) / sfg4
x4 = (6.4743 - 1.3026) / 6.0568
x4 = .8538667283
 
h4 = hf4 + x4hfg4
hf4 = 417.46
hfg4 = 2258
 
h4 = 417.46 + (.8538667283)(2258)
h4 = 2345.491073 kJ/kg
Step 5
 P = (Mass Flowrate, mf) (W)
W = h3 - h4 [Based on the Energy balance of the turbine]
 
Mf = P/W
Mf = 10,000 kJ/s / (2790 - 2345.491073 kJ/kg)
Mf = 22.49673604 kJ/s
Step 6 
Mf = x2(mg)
Mg = Mf / x2
Mg = 22.49673604 / 0.2104980724
Mg = 106.873834 kg/s (3600 s / 1 hr)
Mg = 384745.8024 kg/hr
 9.3( Solved by: Vanessa Bianca Malinao )
The condensing pressure for a Rankine Engine is 1 bar (hf = 417.4 kJ/kg). Calculate the net work for 1kg/s of steam and
the thermal efficiency when the steam at the beginning of the expansion is at 50 bar and (a) saturated, (b) 350°C, (c)
640°C. Note the variation of efficiency and the quality at the expansion.
 GIVEN:
P1 = 50 bar = 5 Mpa At the condenser:
t1 = tsat = 263.99°C (steam table) P2 = 0.1 Mpa
h1 =2794.3 Sf2 =1.3026
s1 = s2 = 5.9734 Sfg2 =6.0568

Take note: Wnet = Wturbine - Wpump

Solution:
we first calculate the missing output work of turbine (Wturbine ) and input work of the pump (Wpump )

 
for Wturbine
We can use the formula:
Wturbine = h1 – h2

Since we have the h1=2794.3

We need to find the h2, the formula is:

h2 = hf2 + x2 hfg2

at 0.1 MPa, hf2 = 417.46 and hfg2 = 2258

 x2 = quality of steam =

=
x2 =0.7712 or 77.12%

We can now substitute the values of hf2 = 417.46 , and x2 = 0.7712 to our formula :
h2 = hf2 + x2 hfg2
=417.46 + (0.7712)(2258 )
h2 = 2158.8296
  Now that we have the values for h1 and h2, we can now go solve for the Wturbine :
Wturbine = h1 – h2
= 2794.3 – 2158.8296
Wturbine =635.4704

hBoiler = Wpump + h3 * Pboiler = P1 , P3 = P2

Wpump = hBoiler - h3
Wpump = Vf3 (Pboiler – P3)
Wpump = 0.0010432 (5 MPa - 0.1MPa) ()
Wpump = 5.1117 = 5.1117
 Wnet = Wturbine - Wpump
= 635.4704 – 5.1117
Wnet = 630.3587 ∙ = 630.3587 = 630.3587 Kw

And for the thermal efficiency of the Rankine Engine:

ηth = hf3 = hf2 = 417.46
= Heat absorbed by the engine
= h1 – hBoiler hBoiler = Wpump + hf3
= h1 - (Wpump + hf3)
= 2794.3 – (5.1117 + 417.46 )
= 2371.7283 ∙ = 2371.7283 = 2371.7283 kW

 We can go back to the formula and substitute the value of = 2371.7283 kW:

ηth = x 100%
= x 100%

ηth = 26.58%
 (b). T = 350°C
P = 50 bar = 5 MPa At the condenser:
h1 =3068.4 (SEE table 3. Vapor at 5 MPa) P2 = 0.1 Mpa
s1 = s2 = 6.4493 Sf2 =1.3026
Sfg2 =6.0568

*to calculate the net work, we use the formula:

Wnet = Wturbine - Wpump

Then again, we first calculate the missing output work of turbine (Wturbine ) and input work of the pump (Wpump )
 
for Wturbine :
We can use the formula:
Wturbine = h1 – h2

Since we have the h1=3068.4

We need to find the h2, the formula is:

h2 = hf2 + x2 hfg2

at 0.1 MPa, hf2 = 417.46 and hfg2 = 2258

 x2 = quality of steam =

=
x2 = 0.8497 or 84.97%

We can now substitute the values of hf2 = 417.46 , and x2 = 0.8497 to our formula :
h2 = hf2 + x2 hfg2
=417.46 + (0.8497)(2258 )
h2 = 2336.0826
 Now that we have the values for h1 and h2, we can now go solve for the Wturbine :
Wturbine = h1 – h2
= 3068.4 –2336.0826 Wturbine =732.3174 or
732.3174 kW

For pump:
hBoiler = Wpump + h3 * Pboiler = P1 , P3 = P2
Wpump = hBoiler - h3
Wpump = Vf3 (Pboiler – P3)
Wpump = 0.0010432 (5 MPa - 0.1MPa) ()
Wpump = 5.1117 = 5.1117
 Wnet = Wturbine - Wpump
= 732.3174 – 5.1117
Wnet = 727.2057 ∙ = 727.2057 = 727.2057 Kw

And for the thermal efficiency of the Rankine Engine:

ηth = hf3 = hf2 = 417.46
= Heat absorbed by the engine
= h1 – hBoiler hBoiler = Wpump + hf3
= h1 - (Wpump + hf3)
= 3068.4 – (5.1117 + 417.46 )
= 2645.8283 ∙ = 2645.8283 = 2645.8283 kW

 We can, again, go back to the formula and substitute the value of = 2371.7283 kW:

ηth = x 100%
= x 100%

ηth =27.48%
 (b). T = 640°C
P = 50 bar = 5 MPa At the condenser:
h1 =3759.6 (SEE table 3. Vapor at 5 MPa) P2 = 0.1 Mpa
s1 = s2 = 7.3632 Sf2 =1.3026
Sfg2 =6.0568

*to calculate the net work, we use the formula:

Wnet = Wturbine - Wpump

Then again, we first calculate the missing output work of turbine (Wturbine ) and input work of the pump (Wpump )

 
for Wturbine :
We can use the formula:
Wturbine = h1 – h2

Since we have the h1=3759.6

We need to find the h2, the formula is:

h2 = hf2 + x2 hfg2

at 0.1 MPa, hf2 = 417.46 and hfg2 = 2258

 x2 = quality of steam =

=
x2 = 1.0006 or 100.6% roughly 100%

We can now substitute the values of hf2 = 417.46 , and x2 = 1.0006 to our formula :
h2 = hf2 + x2 hfg2
=417.46 + (1.0006)(2258 )
h2 =
 Now that we have the values for h1 and h2, we can now go solve for the Wturbine :
Wturbine = h1 – h2
= 3759.6 –2676.8148 Wturbine =1082.7852 or 1082.7852
kW

For pump:
hBoiler = Wpump + h3 * Pboiler = P1 , P3 = P2
Wpump = hBoiler - h3
Wpump = Vf3 (Pboiler – P3)
Wpump = 0.0010432 (5 MPa - 0.1MPa) ()
Wpump = 5.1117 = 5.1117
 Wnet = Wturbine - Wpump
= 1082.7852 – 5.1117
Wnet = ∙ = = Kw

And for the thermal efficiency of the Rankine Engine:

ηth = hf3 = hf2 = 417.46
= Heat absorbed by the engine
= h1 – hBoiler hBoiler = Wpump + hf3
= h1 - (Wpump + hf3)
= 3759.6 – (5.1117 + 417.46 )
= 3337.0283 ∙ = 3337.0283 = 3337.0283 kW

 We can, again, go back to the formula and substitute the value of = 3337.0283 kW:

ηth = x 100%
= x 100%

ηth =32.29%
 9.4 (Solved by: Archell Lee Amba)
Steam at 100 bar, 600 is received by a Rankine cycle and exhaust at 2 bar; are negligible (a.) For the ideal engine, find W,
w, e and pm (b) For the actual engine nb=84% , ngen=93% and the driven generator produces 30MW. Find Wk, ek, total
throttle flow, and estimate the exhaust enthalpy h2.

Given:
P1=100 bar=10MPa P2=2bar=0.2MPa
T1=600℃ nb=84%; ngen=93%; Pw=30MW
 
Required:
a. W,w,e,pm (ideal engine)
b. Wk,ek, throttle flow, h2 (actual engine)
 (a) P1=10MPa
T1=
h 1 =3625.3
S1= 6.9029

 P2= 0.2MPa
S2= 6.9029
So, if
Sf2= 1.5031 h f2= 504.70
Sfg2= 5.59720 h fg2= 2201. q
 

    We can get h2 using the formula

h2=h f2+x1 hfg
 The formula S is
Substituting the values,
S= Sf + X Sfg h 2= 504.70+ (0.9599 )(2201.9)
To get the value of X, we derive this formula h 2= 2619.30381
We get:
 
h3= hf2.(504.70)
 
 
 So,   For ideal engine:
  a 1. W= h1-h2
X2= W=3625.3 kJ/kg – 2618.30381 kJ/kg
W= 1006.992 kJ/kg
X2=0.9599
a 2. w=m/p ; P=m.w
 
For 1kg of steam

 
=
Thus,
 
  a 3. e= Ec= h1-h3
Ec= 3625.3 kJ/kg- 504.70 kJ/kg
Ec=3120.6 kj/kg
 
e=

  a4. From PV=W (fluid work), we get the formula Pm=

Since we don’t have the value of V2, we use the formula
V2= Vf2 + X2 Vfg2
To get Vgf2, we use the formula
Vfg2= Vg2-Vf2
 
From steam tables, we can get the values of
Vg2= 885.7
Vf2= 1.0605
 
 
So,
Vfg2= Vg2-Vf2
Vfg2=885.7-1.0605=884.6395
 
We can now get the value of V2
V2= Vf2 + X2 Vfg2  
=1.0605 + (0.9599) (884.6395) For actual engine:
V2= 850.2259 X 10 -3 m3/ kg  
  b 1 . Wk= hg WB ; WB= W=NbW= 0.84 (1006.9962 kJ/kg ) = 845.8768 kJ/kg
 
To get Pm, Wk= 0.93(845.8768 kJ/kg)
Pm= W/ V2 Wk= 786.6654 kJ/kg
= 850.2259 X 10 -3 m 3 /kg  
Pm= 1184.3866 kPa b 2. ek = Wk/Ec ; Ec = h1-hfg
 
=
eK= 25.2088%
 
 
 
9.6.) (Solved by Aizy Pearl Elentorio)
A turbine, with one extraction for regenerative feedwater heating, receives steam with an enthalpy of 3373 KJ/kg and
discharges it with an exhaust enthalpy of 2326 KJ/kg. The ideal regenerative feedwater heater receives 11338 kg/hr of
extracted steam at 345 kpaa (whose h=2745KJ/kg). The feedwater (condensate from the condenser) enters the heater with
an enthalpy of 140 KJ/kg and departs saturated at 345 kpaa (= 582 KJ/kg). Calculate the turbine power.

 
Given:
m = 11338
= 3373
= 2745
= 2326
= 140
= 582

Required:
Turbine power (W)
 Solution:
We will start with the feedwater flow ( = ). Since is negligible, thus = .
· = m + ( - m) , where = throttle flow
From these formula, getting the value for throttle flow we get:
=
=
=
=
=
= 66 822.3756
 Now for the Engine Energy balance ( = ).
· = m + ( - m) + W
In getting the W, deriving the formula we get:
= ( · ) - m - ( - m)
= ( · ) - m - ( - m)
= (66 822.3756 · 3373 ) – (11338 · 2745 ) - 2326 (66 822.3756 - 11338 )
= 225391872.9 – 31122810 - 129056657.6
= 65212405.25 ()
= 18114.557
= 18114.557 kW
 9.7) (Solved by: Jefferson Yusay)
Steam at 100 bar, 500˚C enters an ideal engine that has one stage of reheat; exhaust is at 0.5 bar and 85%
quality. The work produced by the engine is 800 of steam. Determine the thermal efficiency of the engine.

 
Given:
= 100 bar = 10 Mpa
= 500˚C
= 0.5 bar = 0.05 Mpa
x = 85% = 0.85
= 3373.7
= 6.5966 · ˚K
(*note: bold equations are taken from the steam table)
  look in the pressure table for an entropy of 6.5966 · ˚K.
We
Since it is in saturated state at state 2, thus = = 6.5966 · ˚K.
Now, we need to find the value for using interpolation method:

P s
0.97 6.5969
6.5966
0.98 6.5934

=
=
=
= 0.0008571429 + 0.97
= 0.9708571429 MPa
 
Now at = 0.9708571429 MPa , we need to solve for using
interpolation method:

P h
0.97 2776.9
0.9708571429
0.98 2777.3

=
= 0.034285716
= 2776.9342857
 Now, we need to solve for the value of . Looking at the steam table at 0.05 MPa and 0.85 quality we get:
= 340.49
= 2305.4
Now, we can solve for using the following formula:
= +x
= +x
= 340.49 + (0.85 · 2305.4 )
= 340.49 + 1959.59
= 2300.08

 Now, we only need to solve for the value of . Based on the Energy Balance of the Engine:
= , thus:
+ = + +W
+ = + +W
3373.7 + = 2776.9342857 +2300.08 + 800
3373.7 + = 5877.0142857
= 5877.0142857 - 3373.7
= 2503.3142857
  completing the data necessary for solving thermal efficiency, we need to find for the value of using the
For
following formula: = - + , where = . Since = - , we can substitute the formula to get:
= -+ -
= -+ -
= 3373.7 -340.49 +2503.3142857 - 2776.9342857
= 2759.59

  can now solve for the thermal efficiency of the engine using
We
the following formula:
=
=
=
= 0.289898
= 29%
 
9.8) (Solved by: Jefferson Yusay)
A reheat cycle with two stages of reheating is executed, with a steam expanding initially from 200 bar and 540˚C. The two
reheater pressure are 40 bar and 10 bar, and the steam leaves each reheater at 540˚C. Condensation occurs at 60˚C where
= 251 and = 268 . Sketch the Ts diagram. For the ideal cycle, and 1 of steam, find (a) and e. (b) For the engine, ignore the
pressure drop through the reheater, let the engine operate through the same state and compute W and e.

Given:
= 200 bar = 20 MPa
= 540°C
= 3363.5
= 6.2982 =
= 40 bar = 4 MPa
= 540°C
= 3536.9
= 7.2056 =
= 10 bar = 1 MPa
= 540°C
= 3565.6
= 7.8720 =
*note: bold equations are taken from steam table.
 
Since from the given, we are still missing enthalpy for state 2, 4 and 6 (, and respectively), we need to solve for each.
Starting with , since entropy is equal for both state ( = ), thus we can solve through their quality:
= +x
@20 MPa:
= 6.2982 =
= 2.7967   = +x
= 3.2737 = 1087.31
x= = 1714.1
x= = +x
x= = 1087.31 + (1.06958487)
x = 1.06958487 = 1087.31 + 1833.375426
= 2920.6854
 Now for with , since entropy is equal for both state ( = ), thus
we can solve through their quality:
= +x
@4 MPa
= 7.2056 =   = +x
= 2.1387 = 762.81
= 4.4478 = 2015.3
x= = +x
x= = 762.81 + (1.13919241)
x= = 762.81 + 2295.814464
x = 1.13919241 = 3058.6245
 
Now for with , since entropy is equal for both state ( = ), thus
we can solve through their quality:
= +x
@0.019940 MPa (condensation)
= 7.8720 =
= 0.8312   = +x
= 7.0784 = 251.13
x= = 2358.5
x= = +x
x= = 251.13 + (0.99468807)
x = 0.99468807 = 251.13 + 2345.971813
= 2597.101813
  Now solving for : = + + . We still have the missing three values, we need to solve for each individually.
(a)
Starting with : = - , where = + and = ( - ).
Since = = 251.13 , we can find its volume () by looking at the steam table. We found it to be 0.0010172 . Thus:
=(-)
= 0.0010172 (20 MPa - 0.019940 MPa)
= 0.0010172 (20 MPa - 0.019940 MPa)
= 0.0010172 (19.98006 x )
= 0.0203237 x
= 20.3237
  = + , where =
=+
= 251.13 + 20.3237
= 271.4537
Now solving for : = -
= -
= 3363.5 - 271.4537
= 3092.0463

 Now solving for , by Energy Balance of the Engine thus

= , thus = -
= -
= 3536.9 - 2920.6854
= 616.2146

Now solving for , by Energy Balance of the Engine thus

= , thus = -
= -
= 3565.6 - 3058.6245
= 506.9755
 Now solving for : = + +
= + +
= 3092.0463 + 616.2146 + 506.9755
= 4215.2364 x 1
= 4215.2364

Now solving for the efficiency: = , where = W - and

W= - +- + -
W = (3363.5 - 2920.6854 + 3536.9 - 3058.6245 + 3565.6 - 2597.101813)
W = 10466 - 8576.411713
W = 1889.58827
 = W -
= 1889.58827 - 20.3237
= 1869.26457 x 1
= 1869.26457 or kW

Now solving for the efficiency: = :

=
=
= 0.4434533 x 100%
= 44.34533%
 (b) Since W is already solved previously thus:
W = 1889.58827
Solving for the efficiency = , where = - + +
= - + +
= 3363.5 - 251 +616.2146 + 506.9755
= 4235 x 1 = 4235 or kW
=
=
= 0.446184 x 100%
= 44.6184%
9.13)(Solved by: Aizy Pearl Elentorio)
There are received 100,000 lb/hr steam at 310 psia, 900°F by a Rankine engine, exhaust occurs at 15 psia and change in p = 0,
change in k = 0. for the engine find a.) w, b.) ω, c.) e for the cycle find, d.) w, e.) E

 Given:
= 310 psia x = 2.1367857 MPa
= (900°F - 32°F)/1.8 = 482.2222°C
At exhaust = 15 psia x = 0.10339286 MPa

Since > thus the system suggest to be superheated.

 Using the table 3 for vapors, we need to solve for the value of :

Using interpolation method, we can solve for :

=

0.736 =

-0.04416 =

= 3422.25584
Solving
  for using the same method:
=

0.736 =

-0.04416 =

= 3444.35584
  
Now solving for using interpolation:
=

0.222222 =

4.9111062 =

= 3427.1669462

 
State 2 can be found in the mixture region:
Using the table 3 for vapors, we need to solve for the value of :
Using interpolation method, we can solve for :
=
=
0.736 =
-0.008464 =
= 7.341836
 Solving for using the same method:
=

0.736 =

-0.0083904 =

= 7.3710096

 Now solving for using interpolation:

=

0.222222 =

0.0064830157 =

= 7.34831902
  = 15 psia x = 0.10339286 MPa , this state can be found on the mixture region by looking at the diagram of the
At
rankine cycle. Since = due to the isentropic expansion in the turbine thus:
= = 7.34831902 , since = + x , where we need to solve for the quality of steam at exhaust (x). We first need to
identify values for and .
For :
=

= 0.678572

= 0.010517866

= 1.313179
 Solving for :
=
=
= 0.678572
= -0.02164645
= 6.0351536
Now solving for quality: x =
x=

x=

x = 0.999998

x = 99.9998%
 Now we need to solve for the value of using the ff formula:
= + x , now we need to determine values for and
Starting with :
=
=
= 0.678572
= 3.9221462
= 421.3821462
 Now for :
=

= 0.678572
= -2.4428592
= 2255.5571408
Now solving for : = + x
= 421.3821462 + (0.999998)(2255.5571408)
= 421.3821462 + 2255.5526297
= 2676.9347759
= (steam enthalpy after condensation)
 (a) By law (Energy Balance of the Rankine Cycle): =
= + W , thus W = -
W= -
W = 3427.1669462 - 2676.9347759
W = 750.2321703 x x x
W = 9451.14853 or kW
(b) ω =
ω=
ω = 10.5807

 (c) Now solving for the thermal efficiency of the engine (): = ,
Since we still lack value for , we need to solve it. It is the difference of the enthalpy entering the turbine
and of the steam after condensation, thus = -
= 3427.1669462 - 421.3821462
= 3005.7848
Now for : =
=
= 0.249596 x 100%
= 24.9596%
 (d) = W - , where is the approximate pump work:
= ( - ) where = (constant pressure addition of heat in boilers) and = (constant pressure heat rejection). We need to find
value for . Since = at = = 0.10339286 MPa .
By interpolation, solve for :
=

= 0.678572

= 0.000746429
= 1.04394643 =

 Now, solving for : = ( - )

=(-)
= (1.04394643 )(2.1367857 MPa - 0.10339286 MPa)
= (1.04394643 )(2.03339284 MPa x )
= (1.04394643 )(2.03339284 kPa)
= 2.122753196
 Now for : = W -
=W-
= - 2.122753196
= 748.109417 x x x
= 9424.4069 kW

 (e) Now solving for the efficiency of the cycle (): = , where
= - and = + ,
= +
= 421.3821462 + 2.122753196
= 423.504899 thus,
= 3427.1669462 - 423.504899
= 3003.662047

 Now solving for the efficiency (): = ,

=
=
= 0.24906578 x 100%
= 24.9066%
 9.17 (Solved by: Archell Lee Amba)
From (F-12) has been proposed as the working fluid for an automobile powered by a Rankine
engine. Superheated Freon vapor at 500psia enters the engine and is exhausted to the condenser
as saturated vapor at 100 . sketch the ph-diagram labeling pertinent points and find (a.) W, (b) e,
(c) the vapor rate lb/hp-hr (d) For a net output of 50 hp, compute the rate flow of F-12 (e) If
instead of F-12, the engine used steam entering at 500 psia but exhausting as saturated vapor at
one standard atmosphere, find W,e,and w and compare with F-12 values.
 
Given:
P1=500psia
T2=100
Required:
a.W
b.e
c. Vapor rate, lb/hp-hr.
d. rate of flow for a net output of 50 hp
e. W.e.w
 As stated, superheated freon enters the turbine and expands isentropically until it becomes saturated. Thus,
h 2=hg at a temp. of 100
S2=Sg at 100
Knowing these, can now look for the value at the saturated vapor column,
Table 1. Temperature from the steam table.
Since temperature is expressed in , we convert 100
T2=
From the Steam tables we get the values
  37 376.9
37.7778 h2
38 368.3
 By interpolation, we get:
 Solving for S2 at at temperature of 37.7778 . From the Steam Tables, we get the values.

 
By interpolation, we get
Using S2-S1 to obtain the values of the state at P1=500psia. Since the pressure in the steam tables are expressed in
pascals, we convert 500psia.
500psia (101.325kPa/14.7psi)= 3446.4286 kPa
  obtain:
We

  3400 3446.4286 3600

110 1.5440 S2 1.5290

t1   S1  

115 1.5600 Sb 1.5480

 First, we solve S2 through interpolation.

Then we solve Sb,

 
 
Since we already know that S1=S2, which is 1.5470, we can now solve t1 to be used to solve h1
 
Simplifyng the values we get,

By interpolation we get,

t 1=
t1=111.9461
 
   3400 3446.4286 3600

We can now solve enthalpy at state 1

110 389.8 h2 384.9

111.9461   h1  

115 395.9 hb 392

 To solve h2,

h 2= 389.8-
h2=388.6625kJ/kg
 
To solve hb,

Solving algebraically we get,

h b= 394.9946 kJ/kg
  WE can now solve fpr h1

 By interpolation we get,

Solving algebraically, we get

h 1= 391.1271 kJ/kg

  So if h1=h2+W deriving this equation to get the formula W. W=h 1-h2
W= 391. 1271 kJ/kg – 368.21112 kJ/kg
W=22.916 kJ/kg
Since the answer is expressed in BTU/lb, we should convert our answer
W=22.916kJ/kg
W=9.8484 BTU/lb
 
 B. e=W/Ec ; Ec= h1-h3
To get the value of hf2, since hf2=h3

By interpolation we get,

Solving algebraically, we get

h f2= 236.9556 kJ/kg=h3
 
So, Ec=391.1271 kJ/kg-236.9556 kJ/kg
Ec=154.1715 kJ/kg
So, e= W/Ec
e=
e=14.864%
 C. W= mass flow rate/P ; P=W x mass flow rate
For 1kg/s of steam
W=
W=157.0955 kg/ kW.hr.
 Since the answer is expressed in lb/hp-hr, we`ll convert our answer
 
W= 157.0955 kg/ kw-hr
W=258.4111 lb/hp.hr
a. P= W x mass flow rate
Given P which is 50 hp, we substitute and get
 

 m=P/w= 50hp/(9.8484BTU/lbm); the answer is expressed in lbm/hr

m=12920.8153 lbm/hr
 e. So if P2=1atm or 0.101325MPa
We get the values for h2 and S2 from the steam tables,
Tables of Pressure
 
First, we get h2

By interpolation,

 
By solving algebraically, we get the value
h2=2676.0565kJ/kg
 Since hf2=h3

By interpolation,

By solving algebraically, we get

h f2=419.0447 kJ/kg
For S2 which is equal to S1

By interpolation,

Solving algebraically, we get

S2=7.3551kJ/kg
 Using S2=S1 to obtain the values of the state at p1=500psia
Expressing the pressure into pascals we get,

We obtain,

  3.40 3.4464 3,45

560 7.3412 Sa 7.3340

t1   S1  

580 7.3951 Sb 7.3880

 For Sa

Solving algebraically we get,

Sa=7.3345kJ/kg.K
For Sb,

Solving algebraically we get,

Sb=7.3885 kJ/kg.K
Solving t1

Using interpolation,

Solving algebraically we can get t1,

t 1= 567.6296
   3.40 3.4464 3.45
We can now solve for enthalpy
560 3588.1 ha 3587.6

567.6296   h1  

580 3633.6 h3 3633.2

 For ha,

Solving algebraically we get,

h a=3587.636kJ/kg
For hb,

Solving algebraically we get,

hb=3633.2288kJ/kg
 
 
Getting h1,

By interpolation, we get

Solving algebraically we get,

h 1= 3605.0287kJ/kg

  Having these values we can now solve for the required values,
W=h1-h2
W=3605.0287 kJ/kg -2676.0565kJ/kg
W=928.9722kJ/kg
Expressing the terms in BTU/lb
W=
W=399.2344 BTU/lb
  Next we get e,
E=W/Ec; Ec=h1-h3
Since hf2=h3=419.0447kJ/kg
So,Ec= 3605.0287 kJ/kg – 419.0447kJ/kg
Ec=3185.984kJ/kg
e=W/Ec=
e=29.1581%
w=mass flowrate/P ; P=mass flowrate/w
For 1kg/s of steam,

W=
Answers should be expressed in lb/hp-hr
W=
W=6.3746 lb/hp.hr
 
P=W x m ; m=P/w
Given P=50hp, we can now solve for the mass flow rate m
m=
answer is expressed in lbm/hr

m=318.7334 lbm/hr
 
 9.18 (Solved by: Vanessa Bianca Malinao)
There are received 150,000 lb/hr of steam by an ideal regenerative engine, having only one heater, of which
the heater receives 33 950 lb/hr; the condenser receives the remainder at 1psia. If the heater pressure is
140psia, find the state (quality or ) of the steam (a.) at the heater entrance ,(b.) at the condenser entrance.
At heater entrance:
P2= 0.965 S2= 6.618895895
h 2= 2785.837198
Since,
h2
thus, this is superheat
   0.96 0.965 0.98

180 2789.2 ha 2779.85

t   h1  

185 2793.7 hb 27924

 Using interpolation method

Now finding for hb,

hb=2793.375

Since tsat at pressure=0.965 is 178.365, therefore we could use this In solving the
  Using interpolation method

Now finding for hb,

hb=2793.375

Since tsat at pressure=0.965 is 178.365, therefore we could use this In solving the

 S3=S2=6.618895895
Using interpolation, we could say that Sf3=0.55525714201 at Presuure=0.006892857143MPa
And also using interpolation, we could sat that Sfg3=7.726257143 at the same pressure.
 Sf3=0.55525714201

Sfg3=7.726257143
 
And now we could find the quality,

 
•   (Solved by: Fauline Fe Banquerigo; credits to Raphael Ramirez)
9.20
In an ideal regenerative cycle, the steam expands in the turbine from 1100 psia and 1100 to 80 psia, where m lb. of
steam is extracted for feedwater heating (open heater). The remainder continues expansion to a condenser pressure of
0.9492 psia, 100
(a.) Compute the cycle work and thermal efficiency ,
(b.)the percentage improvement of efficiency as compared to the cycle without regenerative heating
(c.) Consider the properties given as applying to the engine (whose brake engine is 94%. For the engine with
regenerative heating, compute the power output, the combined steam rate, and the combined heat rate . (d.) estimate the
enthalpy of the exhaust steam for the engine, assuming that the actual bled steam is m`= 0.15lb/lb of throttle steam. The
efficiency of the condensate pump is 50%. Show by sketch the energies and boundaries for the system used for tis
energy balance.
Given:
= 1100 psia x = 7.58214286 MPa
= 1100°F – 32 / 1.8 = 593.3333333°C
= 80 psia x = 0.55142857 MPa
= 0.9492 psia x = 0.0065427 MPa
= 100°F – 32 / 1.8 = 37.7777778°C
 
Starting at state 1 (at ), since > thus the steam is superheated based on table 3 for vapours.
First we need to solve for the enthalpy of the steam:

For , solve using interpolation:

=

= 0.8214286

= -0.7392857

= 3621.4607143
Solving
  for using the same method:
=

= 0.8214286

= -0.7392857

= 3645.4607143

 
Now, solving for using interpolation:
=

=
= 0.33333333
= 7.99999992
= 3629.4607142
 Now, we need to solve for entropy of state 1:

For , solve using interpolation:

=

= 0.8214286

= -0.00566786

= 7.020732143
 Solving for using the same method:
=

= 0.8214286

= -0.00566786
 Now solving for :
= 7.048332143 =

= 0.33333333
= 0.0091999999
= 7.0299321429
 
Since the engine expand isentropically thus = = 7.0299321429 at = 80 psia x = 0.55142857 MPa. We need to solve for by
determining quality of the steam and entropy: = + x .
Solving for using interpolation:

= 0.000999999

= 1.898299999
 Now for using the same method:
=

= -0.001871427

= 4.89012857
 Now solving for x: x =
x=
x=
x=
x = 1.04938594 x 100%
x = 104.938594%

Now we will need values for and to be used in finding value for .

For
  , interpolate:

=
=
=
= 0.428571
= 656.358571 = (steam enthalpy exiting the heater)
 For , interpolate:
=

=
=
= -0.3142854
= 2096.6857146

 Now solving for : = + x

= +x
= 656.358571 + (1.04938594) (2096.6857146 )
= 656.358571 + 2200.2325095
= 2856.5910805
 
Now for state 3, entropies for the 3 states are equal due to the isentropic expansion on the engine thus , = = =
7.0299321429
At = 0.0065427 MPa , we need to solve for using . Since
= + x . But we lacks and thus needed to be determine:
Solving for :
=

= 0.0854

= 0.00157136
= 0.5423714
 Now solving for :

= 0.0854

= -0.00380884

= 7.75749116
 
Now solving for quality of seam at exhaust (x): x =
x=
x=
x=
x = 0.83629625 x 100%
x = 83.629625%

 
Solving for requires and thus we need to solve each:
Starting with :
=

=
= 0.0854
= 0.489342
= 158.159342
 Now for :
=

= 0.0854

= -0.28182

= 2412.11818

 Now solving for : = + x

= +x
= 158.159342 + (0.83629625)(2412.11818 )
= 158.159342 + 2017.2453885
= 2175.4047305
  Now, solving for = :
=

=
= 0.0854
= 0.0000427
= 1.0069427 x (saturated liquid volume at )

 
Now, solving for = at = 0.55142857 MPa:
For solving , interpolate:

=
=
=
= 0.000114286
= 1.096814286 x =
 
Summarizing all obtained values:
= 3629.4607142
= 2856.5910805
= 2175.4047305
= 1.0069427 x
Throttle flow () = 100
Since there is no bled steam running through the system, thus the mass flow rate
will be uniform throughout the cycle.

 (a) For the cycle work: = W – ( + )

Now starting with W, based on Energy Balance of the Engine:
= thus, = m + ( - m) + W , deriving the equation to get W : W = - m - ( - m) . Since we still lack value for mass of bled steam
(m), we cannot solve for W. Considering Energy Balance of the Heater ( = )
= m + ( - m) where = thus :
m=
m=
m = = 18.462547
 Now that we have value for m, we can solve for W:
W = - m - ( - m)
W = - m - ( - m)
W = [(100 )(3629.4607142 ) – (18.462547)(2856.5910805) - (100 - 18.462547 )(2175.4047305 )]
W = 164601.392993 - 23918.343349 - 80443.0662
W = 60239.983381 kW

 
Now solving for (condensate pump): = ( - ) where
= and = , thus = ( - )

=(-)
=(0.001096814286 )(0.55142857 MPa - 0.0065427 MPa)
= 0.0005976386 (MPa x )
= 0.5976386 x ( - m) mass flow rate
= [0.5976386 x (100 - 18.462547 )]
= 22.09974116 or kW
 Now solving for (second pump ): = ( - ) where = and = , thus = ( - )

=(-)
= (0.001096814286 )(7.58214286 MPa - 0.55142857 MPa)
= 0.0077113879 (MPa x )
= 7.7113879 x (mass flow rate)
= [7.7113879 x (100 )]
= 349.72280726 or kW
 Now that we have solved all necessary requirements, we can now solve for : = W – ( + )
=W–(+)
= 60239.983381 kW – (22.09974116 kW +349.72280726 kW)
= 60239.983381 kW – 371.82254842 kW
= 59868.16083 kW
Now for thermal efficiency of the engine: = where
= - = (- ) and by energy balance of second engine thus = + thus = -( + )]
= 100 [3629.4607142 - (656.358571 + 7.7113879 )
= 296539.0755 x x
= 134484.8415 or kW
 For thermal efficiency of the engine : =
=
=
= 0.445167 x 100%
= 44.5167 %

 
(b)Based on the Energy Balance of the Engine: = thus:
W= -
W = 3629.4607142 - 2175.4047305
W = 1454.0559837 x
W = 1454.0559837 x 100 x
W = 65943.582027 kW
= W - (condensate pump), where = ( - )
= (1.0069427 x )(7.58214286 MPa - 0.0065427 MPa)
= (1.0069427 x )(7.57560016 MPa)
= 7.628195273 x
= 7.628195273 x 100 x
= 345.9498993 kW
 Solving for : = W -
=W-
= 65943.582027 kW - 345.9498993 kW
= 65597.632128 kW

Now solving for the thermal efficiency:= and = - , and = + thus=

=
=
=
= 0.4176 x 100% = 41.76%

 Now solving for the improvement percentage : =

=
=
=
= 0.061925 x 100 %
Improvement percentage = 6.1925%
 (c) Now for the Rankine engine with regenerative heating under following conditions:
= 80% =
= 94% =
Solving algebraically we get:
0.8 W = and 0.94 = thus = 0.94(0.8 W) where W = 60239.983381 kW
= 0.94(0.8 W)
= 0.94(0.8 x 60239.983381 kW )
= 0.94 (48191.986705 kW)
= 45300.4675 kW
= 45.3004675 MW ̴ (power output )

 Now solving for the combined steam rate : =

=
=
= 7.946938
   the combined heat rate : = where is the difference between the enthalpy of steam entering the turbine and of
For
feedwater leaving the heater, thus = - . Summarizing the equations we get = ( - )
=(-)
= (7.946938 )(3629.4607142 - 656.358571 )
= (7.946938 )(2973.1021432)
= 23627.0584 x x x
= 10715.219229 x x x
= 10153.947044

  Now for the actual reheat cycle where m’ = 0.15 Since throttled steam is , thus m’ = 0.15 x = 15 , and
(d)
pump efficiency at 50% thus: = ,
=
= 44.19948232 kW
We have solved earlier for the value of = 59868.16083 kW where
= W – ( + ), substituting into we get:
W’ = + +
W’ = 59868.16083 kW + 44.19948232 kW + 349.72280726 kW
W’ = 60262.08312 kW
 
Considering the Energy Balance of the Engine ( = ) thus: = m’ + ( - m’) + W’, where is the exhaust steam
enthalpy. Rearranging the equation we get:
=
=
= 164601.39293
= (15 )(2856.5910805 )
= 19432.592384
’ = ( - 15 )
= 38.548752834

 Combining all obtained values we get:

=
=
= 2202.5801404 x x x x
= 946.5792
illustrations:
 9.21 (Solved by: Allia Tuboro)
An ideal reheat steam turbine with one stage of reheating develops 280BTU/lb of work between the throttle
valve and the reheater, and 320 BTU/lb between the reheater and the condenser. After absorbing 240BTU/lb of
heat in the reheater, the steam reenters the turbine at 180psia and 100 and expands to the condenser pressure
of 1 psia. Find the thermal efficiency of the turbine.

 Since they were expressed in different units, we would first convert the h 3 and h5 to

h3=
h3=1529.180642 BTU/lbm
 
h5= 162.1721424
h5=69.69497929 BTU/lbm
 Since QRH= h3-h2

and by deriving we could have h2=h3-QRH

and since QRH= 240BTU/lbm, thus we could say that
h2=h3-QRH
h2= h1529.180642
h2=1289.180642
since,
h1-h2=280
so,
h1= 1289.180642
h1= 1569.180642
  Since,
h 3-h4= 320
so,
h4=h3-320
h4=1529.180642
h4=1209.180642
So now we can solve for the efficiency

 Take note:

By inputting the values from the formula of QRH to Ec