Chapter 5 Wave

Propagation of a
Disturbance
 Types of Waves
 There are two main types of waves
 Mechanical waves
 Some physical medium is being disturbed
 The wave is the propagation of a disturbance
through a medium
 Electromagnetic waves
 No medium required
 Examples are light, radio waves, x-rays
 General Features of Waves
 In wave motion, energy is
transferred over a distance
 Matter is not transferred over a

distance
 All waves carry energy

 The amount of energy and the mechanism

responsible for the transport of the energy
differ
 Mechanical Waves
 Mechanical Waves
 Particles of matter move up & down or
forth as wave moves forward
back & forth,
 MW require some source of disturbance
 MW require a medium that can be disturbed
 MW require physical mechanism through
which elements of the medium can influence
each other
 MW carry energy (through the medium)
 Mechanical Waves, cont
 Mechanical Waves
 The energy must come from some outside
source
 The source is usually a vibration (often a

SHO) of the particles in the medium

 If the source vibrates in SHM, the wave will

have sinusoidal shape in space & time:

At fixed t: Position dependence is sinusoidal
At fixed position x: Time dependence is
sinusoidal
 Pulse on a Rope
 The wave is generated by
a flick on one end of the
rope
 The rope is under tension
 A single bump is formed
and travels along the
rope
 The bump is called a pulse
 Pulse on a Rope, cont
 The rope is the medium through which the
pulse travels
 The pulse has a definite height
 The pulse has a definite speed of
propagation along the medium
 A continuous flicking of the rope would
produce a periodic disturbance which
would form a wave
 Transverse Wave
 A traveling wave or pulse that
causes the elements of the
disturbed medium to move
perpendicular to the
direction of propagation is
called a transverse wave
 The particle motion is shown
by the blue arrow
 The direction of propagation
is shown by the red arrow
 Longitudinal Wave

 A traveling wave or pulse that causes the

elements of the disturbed medium to move
parallel to the direction of propagation is
called a longitudinal wave
 The displacement of the coils is parallel
to the propagation
 Complex Waves

 Surface water waves are an example

 The motion of water elements on the surface of deep water
in which a wave is propagating is a combination of
transverse and longitudinal displacements, with the
result that elements at the surface move in nearly circular
paths
 Each element is displaced both horizontally and
vertically from its equilibrium position
 Example: Earthquake Waves
 P waves
 “P” stands for primary
 Fastest, at 7 – 8 km / s
 Longitudinal
 S waves
 “S” stands for secondary
 Slower, at 4 – 5 km/s
 Transverse
 A seismograph records the waves and allows
determination of information about the earthquake’s
place of origin
 Traveling Pulse
 The shape of the pulse at
t = 0 is shown
 Mathematical represented by:
y (x,0) = f (x)
 This describes the transverse
position y of the element of the
string located at each value of
x at t = 0
 The speed of the pulse is v
 Traveling Pulse, 2
 At some later time, t, the pulse
has traveled a distance vt
 The shape of the pulse does

not change
 The mathematical function will

be:
y(x,t) = f(x – vt)
 Note: Pulse traveling to the

left:
y(x,t) = f(x + vt)
 Traveling Pulse, final
 The function y(x,t) is also called the wave
function
 The wave function represents the y
coordinate of any element located at position
x at any time t
 The y coordinate is the transverse position
 If t is fixed (e.g. taking a snapshot of a wave)
then the wave function is called the waveform
 It defines a curve representing the actual geometric
shape of the pulse at that time
 Sinusoidal Waves
 The wave represented by the
curve shown is a sinusoidal
wave
 It is the same curve as sin
plotted against 
 This is the simplest example of
a periodic continuous wave
 It can be used to build more
complex waves
 Sinusoidal Waves, cont
 The waveform moves toward the
right
 The brown wave represents the initial
position
 As the wave moves toward the right, it
will eventually be at the position of the
blue curve
 Each element moves up and down
in SHM
 Distinguish between the motion
of the wave and the motion of
the particles of the medium
 Terminology
 The crest of the wave is the
location of the maximum
displacement of the element
from its normal position
 This distance is called the
amplitude, A
 Wave speed: v  velocity at
which wave crests (or any part)
move. v  particle velocity
 Period : T  time between crests
 Terminology, cont
 Frequency: f  Number of crests per
second f = 1/T
 When the time interval is the second, the
units of frequency are s-1 = Hz
 Hz is a hertz
 wavelength , is the distance from
The wavelength,
one crest to the next (or any two equivalent
points): λ = vT  v = λ/T
λ = v/f  v = λf
 Frequency f & wavelength λ depend on
properties of the source of the wave.
 Velocity v depends on properties of medium
 Wave Function
 At t = 0, function has the value:
y(x,0) = f(x) =Asin(x)
 At x = 0, function has the value:

y(0,0) = Asin (0) = 0

(0,λ/2)
 The next value of x which makes
(0,0)
y = 0 is:
x = λ/2 
 y(λ/2 , 0) = Asin[(λ/2)] = 0
 (λ/2) = π  = 2π/λ
 At t = 0:

 2 
y ( x,0)  A sin  x
  
 Wave Function, 2
 The wave function is given by
 2
y ( x , t )  A sin   x  vt  
  
 This is a waveform moving to the right
 For a wave moving to the left, replace x – vt with x + vt
 Since: v = λ/T  Equation becomes:

 2    x t 
y ( x, t )  A sin  ( x  t )   A sin  2 (  ) 
  T    T 
 This form shows the periodic nature of y
 – Sign: Moving to the Right
 + Sign: Moving to the Left
 Wave Function, 3
 Compact Form of the Wave Function
 We define Angular Wave Number (Wave
Number), k:
2
k 

 Since angular frequency is defined as:
2

T
 Using these two definitions we can write
y = Asin(2π)(x/λ – t/T) 
y = Asin(2πx/λ – 2πt/T) 
 Wave Function, final
 The wave function can be expressed as
y = Asin(kx – ωt) (Compact Form)
y = Asin(kx – ωt + ) (General Form)
 Where  is called the phase constant

 Wave Speed: Using f  1/T with Equations

ω/k = (2π/T )/(2π/λ) = λ/T = v 

v  ω/k
v  λf
 Example 1 A Traveling
Sinusoidal Wave
 The wavelength, = 40.0 cm, the
amplitude, A = 15.0 cm, and a
frequency f = 8.00 Hz
 Find: k, T,  and speed v of the
wave
k ≡ 2π/λ = 2/40 cm = 0.157 rad/cm
T = 1/f = 1/8.00s-1 = 0.125 s
 ≡ 2πf = 6.28rad(8.00s-1) = 50.3 rad/s
v = f = 40cm(8.00s-1) = 320 cm/s

 The wave function can be written in

the form y = A cos(kx – t) 

y = (15.0cm) cos(0.157x – 50.3t)

 Sinusoidal Waves on a String
 To create a series of
pulses,
pulses the string can be
attached to an oscillating
blade
 The wave consists of a
series of identical
waveforms
 The relationships
between speed, velocity,
and period hold
 Sinusoidal Waves on a String, 2
 Each element of the string
oscillates vertically with
SHM
 For example, point P
 Every element of the string
can be treated as a SHO
vibrating with a frequency
equal to the frequency of
the oscillation of the
blade
 Sinusoidal Waves on a String, 3
 The transverse speed of a
point P on the string is:
dy  
vy  
dt  x constant
vy = -A cos(kx – t)
 This is different than the speed of

the wave (v ) as it propagates

along the string
 v is constant
 vy varies sinusoidally (SHM)
 Sinusoidal Waves on a String, 4
 The transverse acceleration
of the element is

dv y 
ay   
dt  x constant

ay = -2A sin(kx – t)

 Example 2 A Sinusoidally Driven
String
 The string is driven at a frequency
f = 5.00 Hz. The Amplitude of the
motion is 12.0 cm and the wave
speed v is 20.0 m/s
 Find: angular frequency  and wave
number k
 ≡ 2πf = 6.28rad(5.00s-1) = 31.4 rad/s
k ≡ /v = 31.4/20 rad/m = 1.57 rad/m

 The wave function can be written in

the form y = A sin(kx – t) 

y = (0.120m) sin(1.57x – 31.4t)

 Sinusoidal Waves on a String,
final
 The maximum values of the transverse speed
and transverse acceleration are
vy, max = A
ay, max = 2A
 The transverse speed and acceleration do not
reach their maximum values simultaneously
 v is a maximum at y = 0
 a is a maximum at y = A
 Speed of a Wave on a String
 The speed of the wave depends on the physical
characteristics of the string and the tension to
which the string is subjected

tension T
v 
mass/length 
 This assumes that the tension is not affected
by the pulse
 This does not assume any particular shape for
the pulse
 Speed of a Wave on a String,
final
 The Speed of a Pulse Any shape
Fr = 2Tsinθ ≈ 2Tθ
μ (Greek letter mu)  mass per unit
length
μ = m/Δs 
m = μΔs = μ(2Rθ)
 m = 2μRθ
Fr = ma = mv2/R
Fr = (2μRθ)v2/R
(2μRθ)v2/R = 2Tθ
v = (T/μ)½
 Example The Speed of a Pulse on
a Cord
 A uniform cord has a mass of 0.300kg and a length of 6.00
m. The cord passes over a pulley and supports a 2.00 kg
object.
 Find the speed of a pulse traveling along the cord.
 The tension T in the cord is equal to the weight of the
suspended object:
T = mg = 2.00kg(9.60m/s2) = 19.6N (neglecting mass
of the cord)
 The mass per unit length:
μ = m/l = 0.300kg/6.00m = 0.050 kg/m 

v = (T/μ)½ = (19.6N/0.050kg/m)½ = 19.8 m/s

Superposition and
Standing Waves
Waves vs. Particles
Particles have zero Waves have a
size characteristic size –
their wavelength

Multiple particles must Multiple waves can

exist at different combine at one point in
locations the same medium –
they can be present at
the same location
34
Superposition Principle
 If two or more traveling waves are moving
through a medium and combine at a given
point, the resultant position of the element of
the medium at that point is the sum of the
positions due to the individual waves
 Waves that obey the superposition principle
are linear waves
 In general, linear waves have amplitudes much
smaller than their wavelengths

35
 Superposition Example
 Two pulses are traveling in
opposite directions
 The wave function of the pulse
moving to the right is y1 and
the one moving to the left is y2
 The pulses have the same
speed but different shapes
 The displacements of the
elements are positive for
both

36
 Superposition Example, cont
 When the waves start
to overlap (b), the
resultant wave function
is y1 + y2
 When crest meets crest
(c ) the resultant wave
has a larger amplitude
than either of the
original waves

37
 Superposition Example, final
 The two pulses
separate
 They continue moving
in their original
directions
 The shapes of the
pulses remain
unchanged

38
 Superposition in a Stretch
Spring
 Two equal, symmetric
pulses are traveling in
opposite directions on a
stretched spring
 They obey the
superposition principle

39
Superposition and
Interference
 Two traveling waves can pass through
each other without being destroyed or
altered
 A consequence of the superposition
principle
 The combination of separate waves in
the same region of space to produce a
resultant wave is called interference
40
Types of Interference
 Constructive interference occurs when the
displacements caused by the two pulses are
in the same direction
 The amplitude of the resultant pulse is greater
than either individual pulse
 Destructive interference occurs when the
displacements caused by the two pulses are
in opposite directions
 The amplitude of the resultant pulse is less than
either individual pulse

41
 Destructive Interference
Example
 Two pulses traveling
in opposite directions
 Their displacements
are inverted with
respect to each other
 When they overlap,
their displacements
partially cancel each
other
42
Superposition of Sinusoidal
Waves
 Assume two waves are traveling in the
same direction, with the same
frequency, wavelength and amplitude
 The waves differ in phase
 y1 = A sin (kx - t)
 y2 = A sin (kx - t + )
 y = y1+y2
= 2A cos (/2) sin (kx - t + /2)
43
Superposition of Sinusoidal
Waves, cont
 The resultant wave function, y, is also
sinusoidal
 The resultant wave has the same
frequency and wavelength as the
original waves
 The amplitude of the resultant wave is
2A cos (/2)
 The phase of the resultant wave is /2

44
 Sinusoidal Waves with
Constructive Interference
 When  = 0, then
cos (/2) = 1
 The amplitude of the
resultant wave is 2A
 The crests of one wave
coincide with the crests of
the other wave
 The waves are
everywhere in phase
 The waves interfere
constructively
45
 Sinusoidal Waves with
Destructive Interference
 When  = , then
cos (/2) = 0
 Also any odd multiple of 
 The amplitude of the
resultant wave is 0
 Crests of one wave
coincide with troughs of
the other wave
 The waves interfere
destructively
46
 Sinusoidal Waves, General
Interference
 When is other than
0 or an even multiple
of , the amplitude of
the resultant is
between 0 and 2A
 The wave functions
still add

47
Sinusoidal Waves, Summary
of Interference
Constructive interference occurs when
 = n where n is 0 or an even integer
 Amplitude of the resultant is 2A
Destructive interference occurs when
 = n where n is an odd integer
 Amplitude is 0
 General interference occurs when
0<<
 Amplitude is 0 < Aresultant < 2A 48
Standing Waves
 Assume two waves with the same
amplitude, frequency and wavelength,
travel in opposite directions in a medium
 y1 = A sin (kx – t) and y2 = A sin (kx +
t)
 They interfere according to the
superposition principle

49
 Standing Waves, cont
 The resultant wave will be
y = (2A sin kx) cos t
 This represents the wave function
of a standing wave
 There is no function of kx – t, and
therefore it is not a traveling wave
 Every elements of the medium
vibrate in simple harmonic motion
with the same angular frequency .
The amplitude of the motion of a
given element depends on its
position along the medium. The
envelope function of the amplitude
is 2A sin(kx).
50
Note on Amplitudes
 There are three types of amplitudes
used in describing waves
 The amplitude of the individual waves, A
 The amplitude of the simple harmonic
motion of the elements in the medium,
2A sin kx
 The amplitude of the standing wave, 2A
 A given element in a standing wave vibrates
within the constraints of the envelope function
2Asin kx, where x is the position of the element
in the medium
51
Standing Waves, Particle
Motion
 Every element in the medium oscillates
in simple harmonic motion with the
same frequency, 
 However, the amplitude of the simple
harmonic motion depends on the
location of the element within the
medium
 The amplitude will be 2A sin kx

52
Standing Waves, Definitions
 A node occurs at a point of zero
amplitude
 These correspond to positions of x where

 An antinode occurs at a point of

maximum displacement, 2A
 These correspond to positions of x where

53
Nodes and Antinodes, Photo

54
Features of Nodes and
Antinodes
 The distance between adjacent
antinodes is /2
 The distance between adjacent nodes is
/2
 The distance between a node and an
adjacent antinode is /4

55
 Nodes and Antinodes, cont

 The standing-wave patterns at various times produced

by two waves of equal amplitude traveling in opposite
directions
 In a standing wave, the elements of the medium
alternate between the extremes shown in (a) and (c)
56
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