Drive Fundamentals

Authored by David Glaser

1
 AC Drive Block Diagram

3 phase AC

Encoder

8-2
 Typical Three Phase Inverter
Note: There are six transistors and six diodes in the inverter section of the drive.
The diodes are used during regeneration and are explained later. The (+) DC bus
is connected to the transistors collector while the (-) DC bus is connected to the
emitter. What is connected to the Base?

Positive DC Bus Line

T1
T2
T3

Negative DC Bus Line

So what does the inverter do?

8-3
 Inverters
Inverting DC to AC

4
 Transistors
A transistor is a solid-state device using the element silicon or germanium. There are many
types of transistors available in industrial applications but this training module will
specifically cover bipolar junction transistors used as switching devices inside an inverter.
Currently, we use IGBT’s or Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors within our drives inverter
section. The transistors come in two types called NPN or PNP type transistors. Notice the
arrow direction for the two types of transistors.
NPN Transistors PNP Transistors
Collector Collector

Base Base

Emitter Emitter
 Standard Transistors 

NPN IGBT PNP IGBT

Collector Collector

Base Base

Emitter Emitter
 IGBT Transistors 

Notice the double line found on the base of the IGBT transistors. This is the symbol of an
insulated gate, meaning that a junction or an electronic barrier separates the base from the rest
of the transistor. This junction prevents leakage current through the base to the emitter or
collector and ensures that 100% of the current flows through the emitter and collector.
8-5
 Rules of Conduction - ALL MUST BE TRUE!
•The transistor is normally off, without any output current unless a forward bias voltage is
applied in the base-emitter circuit. Biasing differs for NPN & PNP type transistors. In an
NPN transistor, the base must be positive with respect to the emitter while the PNP’s base is
negative with respect to the emitter. The collector base junction is always reverse biased.

•The forward bias voltage controlling the base current determines the amount of output
current. This is exactly what the gate pulse on the SCR does. A maximum bias signal (full
on) provides a maximum current output. The transistor provides infinitely variable control of
conduction from off to full on.

•For the NPN transistor, the collector must be (+) with respect to the emitter when a (+) base
signal is applied. For the PNP transistor, the collector must be (-) with respect to the emitter
when a (-) base signal is applied.

(+) Collector (-) Collector

(+) Base (-) Base

(-) Emitter (+) Emitter

NPN IGBT PNP IGBT

•The silicone transistor requires a minimum of .7v difference between the base and emitter
to conduct while the germanium transistor requires only a .3v difference. Transistors are
almost always made from silicone. Germanium transistors are only used in special
applications. 8-6
 Application
(+) Collector

(+) Base
The following problems below describe a condition
applied to the NPN transistor. Try and determine if
(-) Emitter
the transistor would conduct or not and why. If you
get any wrong, go back and review the rules before
proceeding with this module.
NPN IGBT
1) No, not yet. The collector and emitter are
1) The collector has +10 volts applied to it properly biased but there is no base signal applied
and the emitter is tied to ground. Would to it. Without the base signal the junction can’t be
the transistor conduct now? Why? broken down so current can’t flow.

2) The collector has 10 volts and
base has 5 volts applied to them, the
emitter is at 4.5 volts. Would the
transistor conduct now? Why?
3) The collector has -5 volts applied
to it and the emitter is tied to ground.
The transistor is receiving the proper
base signal. Would the transistor
conduct? Why?
4) The collector has -5 volts applied
to it and the emitter has -10 volts
applied to it. The base is receiving
the proper signal. Would the
transistor conduct? Why?
2) Maybe, the transistor’s emitter & collector are biased
properly and base signal is also getting the proper signal.
The difference in base to emitter voltage is only .5v. A
silicone transistor would not conduct while the germanium
transistor would.
3) No, the transistor is reverse biased. The collector
is (-) with respect to the emitter. Receiving the proper
base signal when reverse biased will not cause the
transistor to conduct.
4) Yes, even though -5 volts is applied to
the collector, it is still more positive with
respect to the emitter. -5 is more positive
than -10 so it is biased properly.
8-7
 Typical Three Phase Inverter
Note: There are six transistors and six diodes in the inverter section of the drive.
The diodes are used during regeneration and are explained in another module.
The (+) DC bus is connected to the transistors collector while the (-) DC bus is
connected to the emitter. What is connected to the Base?
Positive DC Bus Line
The output of the gate driver
circuit board inside the drive is
connected to the gate of each
T1 transistor. Each transistor gets an
T2 independent signal from the gate
T3 driver at different time intervals.
The transistor turns on “conducts”
when a gate signal is applied and
turns off when the gate signal is
removed. In other words, the gate
Negative DC Bus Line
driver turns the transistors on and
off in a specific order.
So what does the inverter do?
The transistors within the inverter take a relatively constant DC “from the Bus”, and
creates a three phase PWM “pulse width modulated” waveform going to each terminal
of the AC motor. Note: A DC voltage is felt at motor the terminals (T1, T2, & T3) but
the current waveform resembles an AC sine wave. The next few pages will explain
this further. In short, the inverter turns DC into AC.

8-8
 Sine Weighted PWM
Switching Frequency & Pulses

Allen-Bradley uses what is known as Sine Weighted PWM. This process is done by the
circuitry inside the drive as shown below.

The triangular signal is the carrier or

Triangle switching frequency of the inverter.
Generator
The modulation generator produces
a sinewave signal that determines
Modulation
the width of the pulses, and
Generator therefore the RMS voltage output of
the inverter.

What we do is superimpose a
switching frequency triangular
waveform onto a sine wave.
That combination of the two
signals would look something
like this.

8-9
 Sine Weighted PWM
Switching Frequency & Pulses

If we magnify a portion of that sine wave we

see that pulses of different widths are formed
based on the "weighing" of the sine wave.

The pulses are then inverted

and are applied to the base of
the transistor used to fire “gate”
or turn on the power transistors
to create the actual PWM
output.

The next page shows what the actual PWM signal looks like.

8 - 10
 3 Phase PWM & Current Waveforms
The six transistors are turned on and off in a
certain order to form three phase pulse width
modulated waveforms. The order and
frequency of the waveform is determined by
the drive’s Central Procession Unit “CPU”.
The CPU controls the gate driver board’s
output to the base of each power transistor.

The PWM waveform actually is a

Square wave DC voltage. This
voltage is applied directly to the
AC motor terminals.

Remember, even though we have DC

voltage applied to the motor, the current
waveform resembles an AC sine wave.
and is used to control speed of the AC
squirrel cage induction motor.

8 - 11
 Conduction
180° 180°
During the positive half cycle of  
 
phase A, transistor # 1 is turned
on and off at a frequency Transistor #1 
determined by the drive CPU.
Transistor # 4 is used during the
negative half cycle. Notice how Transistor #4 
the total duration makes up 360
electrical degrees or one full cycle
of power. 180° 180°
 
 
Transistor #3 

Phase B & C operate in the same

way that phase A did except there Transistor #6 
is a phase shift. Meaning that the
phases start at different times. If
you are having trouble 180° 180°
understanding phase shifts and
electrical degrees, refer to the  
 
rectification module before moving
Transistor #5 
on in this lesson.

Transistor #2 

Note: the positive half cycle for B starts 120 degrees after the positive half cycle for A phase, C starts 240 degrees after A.
8 - 12
 Varying the Current Output
Remember one of the rules of transistor
(+) Collector conduction stated that the forward bias
voltage controlling the base current
(+) Base determines the amount of output current. A
maximum bias signal (full on) provides a
(-) Emitter maximum current output. The transistor
provides infinitely variable control of
NPN IGBT conduction from off to full on.

—
This means that changing the 
strength of the base signal changes Amplitude
the resistance of the junction 
between emitter and collector —
causing changes in conduction
levels within the transistor.

The current flow or “waveform” is shown here. The rise and fall in current
means the amplitude of each sine wave is constantly changing with time.

8 - 13
 Current Waveforms and Kirchoff’s Law

Kirchoff’s current law (KCL)

states that the phasor sum of all
currents into and out of any
branch point in a circuit must
equal zero.

To understand current flow in an AC circuit, lets look at it related to time. “T1 through
T8” in the chart above represent frozen moments in time, look at the phases along each
time to see which one(s) is/are most positive and negative. For example: T9 or time # 9,
Phase C is the most negative while both phase A & B are positive, intersect and are
equal. Does this follow Kirchoff’s Law?

Yes it does! At T9, phase “C” is at a value of -10, while both phase “A & B” are
at +5. We know from years of “higher” math study that -10 + 5 + 5 = 0

The next few pages will show how currents flow in the inductor circuit. Refer
back to the picture above for the next few slides if you don’t understand.

8 - 14
 Powering the Motor
Using conventional flow, refer to Time 1, of the chart where
phase “C” & “A” are equal & positive while Phase “B” is the most
negative current waveform. The current path is as follows :

     
 
The blue arrows
1 3 5 indicate current
flow into the motor
  leads.

       
Phase A
  
 Phase B
  
 Phase C

4 6 2 The red arrows

show current
 flow from the
motor back into
the inverter.


  

Notice how three transistors are conducting at this moment in time and that they are not of the
same phase. Each transistor is switching on and off to create the PWM voltage waveform.
8 - 15
 Powering the Motor
Refer to Time 2, where phase “A” is most
positive and Phase “B” & “C” are equal and
negative current waveforms.
 

 The blue arrows

1 3 5 indicate current
flow into the motor
leads.


        
Phase A
     
Phase B
     
Phase C
 
4 6 2 The red arrows
show current
flow from the
motor back into
the inverter.
 
         
Notice that phase “A” transistor #1 remained on and is now the only positive transistor
conducting. Phase “C” transistor #5 turned off & Phase “C” transistor #2 turned on. Notice that
phase “B” transistor #6 remained on but is no longer the only negative transistor conducting.
8 - 16
 Powering the Motor
Refer to Time 3, “A” & “B” are equal &
positive while phase “C” is the most
negative current waveforms.
     

  The blue arrows

1 3 5 indicate current
flow into the motor
leads.

 
        
Phase A 
      
Phase B
  
 Phase C

4 6 2 The red arrows

show current
flow from the
motor back into
the inverter.


       

Notice that phase “A” transistor #1 and phase “C” transistor #2 remained on.
Phase “B” transistor #6 turned off while Phase “B” transistor #3 turned on.
8 - 17
 Powering the Motor
Refer to Time 4, where phase “B” is the most
positive phase. Phase “C” & “A” are equal
and negative current waveforms.
    

 The blue arrows

1 3 5 indicate current
flow into the motor
leads.


         
Phase A
      

Phase B
   
Phase C

4 6 2  The red arrows
show current
flow from the
motor back into
 the inverter.

       

Notice that phase “A” transistor #1 is turned off & transistor #4 turned on, phase
“C” transistor #2 & phase “B” transistor #3 remained on.
8 - 18
 Powering the Motor
Refer to Time 5, where phase “B” & “C”
are equal & positive while Phase “A” is the
most negative current waveform.
         
  The blue arrows
1 3 5 indicate current
flow into the motor
leads.

         
Phase A
      
 Phase B      
Phase C

4 6 2 The red arrows
show current
flow from the
motor back into
 the inverter.

 

Notice that phase “A” transistor #4 remained on, phase “C” transistor #2 turned off
& transistor # 5 turned on, Phase “B” transistor #3 also remained on.
8 - 19
 Powering the Motor
Refer to Time 6, where phase “C” is the
most positive and Phase “A” & “B” are
equal and negative current waveforms.
       

 The blue arrows

1 3 5 indicate current
flow into the motor
leads.


        
Phase A
      
 Phase B
  
 Phase C

4 6 2 The red arrows
show current
flow from the
motor back into
  the inverter.

    

Notice that phase “A” transistor #4 & phase “C” transistor #5 remained on while
phase “B” transistor #3 turned off and transistor # 6 turned on.
8 - 20
 Powering the Motor
Refer to Time 7, of the chart where phase “C” is the
most positive and Phase “B” is the most negative
current waveforms. Phase “A” is not conducting.
       

  The blue arrows

1 3 5 indicate current
flow into the motor
leads.

 
         
Phase A
    
 Phase B
   
Phase C

4 6 2 The red arrows
show current
flow from the
motor back into
 the inverter.

    
Notice that phase “A” transistor #4 turned off & transistor #1 turned on, phase “C”
transistor #5 & phase “B” transistor #6 remained. Time seven is the same as time
one. The cycle repeats over and over, as long as the transistors are gated.
8 - 21
 Current Waveform,
Contro
why is it important?
120 x Applied Frequency
RPM =
Number of Poles per Phase

For example:

Based on the formula, a typical four pole motor with 60 Hz

applied to it runs at 1800 RPM
 60 Hz 

If we lengthen the time for one cycle

of power to 30 Hz What would be
the speed of the Motor?
 30 Hz 

900 RPM, remember frequency “f” is the inverse

of time, as “f’ gets smaller the cycle get longer.

8 - 22
 Powering
Inverter
the Motor
We now know that the inverter converts DC to AC when we are powering
the motor. But what happens when the motor turns faster than what is
required?

8 - 23
 Question?
I thought the DC Bus was to remain relatively constant, won’t regeneration cause
the DC Bus voltage to rise? Won’t this rise cause some damage to the drive?

The converter is reverse biased

or off during regeneration.
 Bus voltage rises during regeneration

 Regenerated Power
from the motor

8 - 24
 Braking Chart

So when are each of these used?

8 - 25
 So many choices, so little time.

Which drive do I choose?

See the drive product profile handout

8 - 26
 Regulation, is it Important?
Frequency Control or V/Hz

Frequency
Speed Command Regulator

Driving Blindfolded ! !

True frequency drives use a crude Frequency Regulator to control speed.

What drives use V/Hz mode?

8 - 27
 Speed Regulation
Open loop control vs Closed loop control

8 - 28
 Speed Regulation
Sensorless Vector - Speed control is only as good as its speed regulator

Speed Speed
Command Regulator

Current?
Encoder?

It is better than the Frequency Regulator and can be improved with the use of an
encoder or current feedback loop

What drives use Sensorless Vector?

8 - 29
 Torque Control
Field Oriented Control - Speed Falls where it may !

Torque
Torque Command Regulator

What drives use FOC?

8 - 30
 Torque & Speed Control
FOC

Speed Torque
Command Command
Speed Torque
Regulator Regulator

8 - 31
 Drive Features Available
• Safe Speed Monitoring Option
• Safe Torque-Off Option
• DeviceLogix Embedded
• Preventative Diagnostics
• Embedded Ethernet
• Integral Position Loop
• Speed and Position Profiler,
Electronic Gearing, PCAM
functions
• Expandable I/O, 24VDC/120VAC Options
• 24V DC Aux Power Option
• Real Time Clock
• Flexible Packaging Options
• New HIM Option
• RoHS Compliant
• Conformal Coated (Standard)
• Assisted Start-up Routine
Note: Some of our drives have all of these features included while others will have
less capability.
• Multiple Feedback Options
• Motor Overload Retention
• Common Bus Capability
• Adv. Drive Overload Protection
• Bus Regulation
• 5 Slots for control options
• Feedback Loss Switchover (in
speed mode)
• Inertia Adaptation
• Permanent Magnet Motor
Control
• TorqProve
• Integrated Motion on
EtherNet/IP
8 - 32
 The End

Any Questions???

33