GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF

ROADS
by
Engr. Prof. Telimoye M. Oguara, FNICE, FNSE,FAEng.
Department Of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Port Harcourt

at the

NIGERIAN INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS

3 – DAY WORKSHOP ON DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
OF ROADS IN PRACTICE

AUG. 27-29 2013 LAGOS AIRPORT HOTEL, IKEJA

1.0 Introduction
The term Geometric Design embraces all aspects of the
engineering design of the visible features of a highway
or street; it does not include the thickness or structural
elements of the highway.

Geometric design deals with horizontal and vertical

alignments, intersections, clearances, and dimensions of
the highway cross section; and are directly affected by
travel volume and traffic speed. The overall objective of
geometric design is to arrange the physical features of
the highway so as to best suit the requirements of driver
and vehicle in providing inherent safety , and increase
traffic capacity and efficiency.
• Geometric design practices vary from country to country.
Most countries have established standard design manuals or
procedures for the guidance of design engineers. The best
known are the series of policy publications by the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO). For Nigeria, we have the Highway manual ,
published in 1973, which is a detailed reference design
manual for geometric design, as well as structural design of
pavements, drainage design, bridge and culvert designs and
other highway secondary design elements. Much of the
material presented here is drawn from the 2004 AASHTO
policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, the
1973 Nigerian Highway Design Manuel and Highway
Engineering – Geometric Design text by T.M. Oguara.
2.0 DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA

2.1 Human Characteristics

The individual human behavior in the traffic stream

determine the characteristics of the traffic and is affected
by psychological factors (emotional stability), physical
factors (visual acuity), perception reaction time (sensory
reception of information), and environmental conditions
(weather). For purposes of computing sight distances,
AASHTO recommends a combined perception reaction and
braking time of 2.5 seconds for all conditions.

After taking cognizance of these human characteristics the

basic design considerations are as follows (Oguara, 2006).
2.2 Design Vehicle
The dimensions of the motor vehicle influence the geometric
design of highways, the width of the vehicle affects the width
of the traffic lane, the length of vehicle has a bearing on
highway capacity and affects the turning radius; the height of
the vehicle affects the clearance of the various structures. A
design vehicle is therefore a selected motor vehicle, the weight,
dimension and operating characteristics of which are used to
establish highway design controls to accommodate vehicle of a
designated type (AASHTO, 1984). The design vehicle is either
the largest vehicle that is expected to use the facility with
considerable frequency or a design vehicle with special
characteristics that must be taken into account in
dimensioning the facility.

For example an articulated Bus or large Semi-Trailer can be

the design vehicle. The vehicle will influence the design of
circular features such as radii of intersections and radii of
 2.3 Design Traffic Volume
The design of a highway is based on proper traffic data. Where traffic
data are not available or incomplete, traffic should be deduced from
available traffic data on similar facilities in the locality. The major traffic
elements influencing highway design are:
(i) The average daily traffic ADT, the total volume during a given period in
whole days, greater than one day and less than one year divided by the
number of days in that period.
(ii) Design hour volume DHV, interval of time shorter than a day usually
the peak hour volume in the day is used.
(iii) The directional distribution (D) is the one way volume during the peak
hours. For must roads D range from 55 to 70% on the predominant
direction
(iv) Percentage of trucks in traffic stream (T) the heavier vehicles, such
as trucks and buses are slower and occupy more roadway space and
should be expressed as a percentage of total traffic during the design
hour.
The estimates of ADT, DHV, D and T should be representative of future
years chosen for design.
In Nigeria, specific values of DHV based on ADT have been
recommended on low volume roads with ADT less than or = 330
the DHV = ADT. For volumes between 331 and 2200 vehicles per
day, the DHV shall be 330 and for volumes in excess of 2200 vpd,
the DHV= 18% of ADT.

The Nigerian highway manual also specifies maximum permissible

ADT in terms of equivalent passenger car units. A conversion table
for trucks and buses to passenger car units is also given. Table 1
shows maximum permissible average daily traffic in terms of
passenger car units (pcu).
Table 1: maximum Permissible Average Daily Traffic.
Type of Highway Number of lanes Passenger Car Unit
Secondary 1 No. 3,666m 330
Primary 2 No. 3. 66m 5,000
Dual way 4 No. (Divided) 30,000

(Highway Manual, 1973)

 2.4 Design Speed
• It is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained
over a specified section of highway when conditions are
so favourable that the design features of the highway
govern. The assumed design speed should be a logical
one with respect to topography , the adjacent land use,
and the type of highway. Once a design speed is
selected, all the pertinent features of the highway should
be related to it to obtain a balanced design.
• The choice of design speed should be consistent with the
speed a driver is likely to expect. A highway in level
terrain justifies a higher design speed than one in a
mountainous terrain; a highway carrying a large volume
of traffic may justify a higher design speed than one
with less traffic volume on a similar topography
Recommended design speeds in the Nigerian
highway manual (1973) for different
topographic conditions are as in Table 2

Highway Terrain Design Speed, (km/hr)

condition
Minimum Desirable
Limited All terrain 97 113
Access
Unlimited Level 97 113
Access Rolling 80 97
Hilly and 64 80
Mountainous
 3.1 Sight Distance
• The design of alignment and profile of a road
provide for sight distance i.e. the length of
roadway a head visible to the driver
• Two sight distances are considered.
a.Stopping Sight Distance (d) the maximum
distance required for a driver to stop his vehicle
while travelling at near the design speed before
reaching a stationary object in his path.
• The stopping distance is made up of the sum of
 Brake reaction distance d’ = tr. V
 V2
Braking distance d’’ = 2 g ( f  s)
v2
i.e. d = d’ + d’’ = tr. V + 2g (f  S)
(1)

where d = distance required by driver to come to emergency stop (meters)

tr = driver reaction time (secs)
V = Initial speed, m/sec
f = coefficient of friction between the tyres and roadway
s = longitudinal slope of roadway or % grade with uphill grades (+) and down hill

grades (-)
Changing v in m/sec to V in km/hr and g = 9.81m/sec 2 and perception reaction time tr =
2.5 seconds.
V2
0.7V 
2g (f  S)
d = (2)
(b)Passing Sight Distance
• On 2 lane 2 way roads, opportunity to overtake slower
moving vehicles is provided at intervals by providing
adequate passing sight distances to enable drivers to
see sufficient distance ahead before overtaking.
Minimum passing sight distance for 2 – lane roads is
determined as the sum of 4 distances:
d1 = distance traversed during perception and
reaction time during initial acceleration to the point of
encroachment on the left lane.
d2 = distance traveled while the passing vehicle
occupies the left lane
d3 = distance between the passing vehicle at the end of
its maneuver and the opposing vehicle
d4 = distance traversed by an opposing vehicle for 2/3 of the time the passing
vehicle occupies the left lane or 2/3 of d2

Minimum standards for sight distances related to design speed as specified in the
Nigerian Highway Manual are given in Table 3

Table 3 Minimum standards for sight distances.

Design speed Minimum sight distances
(km/hr)
Stopping (m) Passing (m)
48 61 244
64 84 396
80 107 518
97 145 610
113 183 710

3.2 Horizontal Alignment

Consist mainly of a series of straight lines (tangents)
connected by circular curves. Figure 1 is a simple curve
with its component parts.
• Figure 1: Basic Properties of a circular curve
The formulas for finding the various components are as follows:
where IP = chainage obtained from site by the Surveyor
= point of intersection

R = Radius of Curve

R tan
2 of tangents
 = Angle of intersection
 Tangent Distance, TL =
2R (3)
360
Curve length CL =  (4)
2 R sin
2
Long chord LC =   (5)
E  R (sec  1)  TL tan
2 4
External distance (6)

R(1  cos )
2
Middle ordinate M = (7)

Station of PC = IP sta - TL (8)

Station of PT = PCsta + CL (9)
These formulas were used to calculate the various components of the upper curves
indicated in the plan and profile diagrams as shown for some curves in Figure 2.
3.3 Superelevation

Is the rotation of a roadway cross section in such a manner as to overcome the

centrifugal force that acts on a motor vehicle traversing a horizontal curve. The
minimum radius R for a given design speed is determined by the maximum rate of
super-elevation and the maximum coefficient of frictions, i.e.

V2
R
127 e  f 
where v = vehicle speed, m/sec
e = Superelevation = tan ϐ
ϐ= angle of pavement slope
f = coefficient of side friction between the tyres and roadway
surface.

Curves of the roadways are superelevated, utilizing the force of gravity to offset the
tendency of vehicles to slide outward.
3.4 Transition (Spiral) Curve

Every motor vehicle follows a transition path as it enters a

circular horizontal curve from a tangent section or vice versa .

The transition needs to be accomplished without any appreciable

reduction in speed and in such a manner as to ensure safety and
cornfort to the vehicle and occupants. A common method is the
use of transition or spiral curves to effect a gradual change in
cross slope from the tangent section ( with normal cross slope) to
a fully superelevated curved section or vice versa

The employment of transition curves between tangents and

sharps circular curves and also between circular curves of
substantially different radii provides a natural easy to follow path
for drivers, such that the centrifugal force increase and decrease
gradually as a vehicle enters and leaves a circular curve.
3.5 Vertical Alignment

The vertical alignment (road profile) is the

longitudinal section of the roadway showing the
grades and vertical curves. It is a series of
straight lines connected by vertical parabolic
curves, representing the changes in elevation
along the centerline of the roadway. A smooth
grad-line with gradual changes as consistent with
the type of highway and character of the terrain
is desired. Figure 3 is a vertical curve.

For simplicity, the parabolic curve with an

equivalent vertical axis centered on the vertical
point of intersection PVI is usually used in design.
 VERTICAL CURVE

PVI
x
E
y

PVC E
+G1 PVT

L/2 L/2 -
G2
L
Figure 1.4: Geometry of vertical curves
Typical notations used to identify parts of the parabolic curve are:
G1, G2 = tangent grades %
A = Algebraic difference in slope of tangent grade, (G 1 – G2)%
E = Midcurve offset, metres
y = offset of curve from initial grade line, metres
L = Horizontal length of vertical curve, metres
X = Horizontal distance from an end of the vertical curve, metres.
PVC = BVCS = vertical point of curvature, where tangent grade meets vertical curve
PVT = EVCS = vertical point of tangent, where vertical curve meets tangent grade.
 PVI = Vertical Point of Intersection, where tangent grades intersect. A Basic characteristic
of the vertical curve is that the vertical offsets from the tangent line are proportional to the
square of the horizontal distances from the point of tangency: thus
2
 L 
 
y1 x 12 E  2  y4
 ;  ; E 
y2 x 22 y4 L2 4

AL AL
But y4  ;  E 
200 800

Computation of vertical offsets is usually based on the mid-curve offset E, which easily
calculated, thus
y X2 3X 2
  2
E  L 2 L
 
2
 4 x 2  AL 4 x 2 Ax 2
y  E  2   . 2 
 L  800 L 200L
A
If a  ; then y  ax 2
200
This is the general equation of a parabola
As can be seen from equation (11) above, the vertical offset from the tangent
Grade at any point along the curve is calculated as a proportion of the
mid point offset, E. The rate of change of grade at successive points on the
curve is a constant amount for equal increments of horizontal distance, and is equal to A/L
in percent per metre.
The reciprocal L/A is the horizontal distance required to
effect a 1% change in gradient, and is a measure of
curvature L is termed K and is useful in determining the
horizontal distance from the vertical; point of curvature,
PVC (BVCS) to the apex (crest or summit curve) or low
points (sag curves) and minimum lengths of vertical
curves for various design speed. Figure 2 also show crest
and sag curves, from sections of a proposed road
network. The formulas and notations were used to
design these curves. Here, note that A.D. = Algebraic
difference of tangent grades, and all other elements are
as defined and discussed above.
4.0 Cross section Element
cross section element are those features of a highway which form
its effective width and affect vehicle movement. Cross section of
typical highways of modern design are shown in Figure 4.

Road Width
Carriageway Median Carriageway
CL CL
Traffic Lane

Traffic Lane

Traffic Lane

Traffic Lane
Shoulder

Shoulder

Shoulder

Shoulder
Fig. 4 Cross-section of a typical highway
The major cross sectional elements are as follows:

4.1 Traffic lane width

No feature of a highway has a greater influence on the safety and
comfort of driving than the width and condition of the surface. The
capacity of the highway is greatly affected by the lane width. With
width ranging from 3.0m to 3.96m and 3.66 being predominant on
most high –type highway, the capacity of a 3.0m and 3.35m lanes
expressed as a percentage of 3.66m lane are 77% and 86%
respectively. For 4 lane undivided highway these percentages are 89
and 95% respectively.
In a capacity sence, the effective width of travelled way is reduced by
the presence of adjacent obstructions such as retaining walls bridge
trusses, buildings, parked cars etc. it is desirable to have lane width of
3.66m with lateral clearance of at least 1.83m. The numbers of lanes
required is determined by the traffic volume for the design year and
the design speed envisaged.
 4.2 Cross Slope (Camber)
• Pavements on tangents or on flat curves are usually provided
with a crown or high point in the middle and sloped
downward towards the edges so as to prevent ponding of
water on the pavement. Table shows Nigerian and AASHTO
standard values.
Nigeria Range in Cross Slope
Portland Cement Concrete 0.015
Bituminous mix pavement 0.015 – 0.02
Penetration treated earth or gravel 0.025 – 0.03
Unsurfaced graded section 0.025 – 0.03

AASHTO
High - 0.015 – 0.02
Intermediate - 0.015 – 0.03
Low - 0.02 – 0.06
 4.3 Shoulders
• The shoulder or verge is that portion of roadway
between the edge of the traffic land and the edge of
the ditch, gutter, curb or side slope provided for the
accommodation of stopped vehicles for emergency
use and for lateral support of subbase, based and
surface courses. Shoulder width of 3m are desirable
on high type facilities, a min of 0.60m considered
lowest.
– USA – shoulder is continuous on all highways
– Britain – we provide intermitten sections of shoulders or
turnouts knowns as lawbys – 30m long and 3m wide and
spaced along the highway
 4.4 Curbs
• Used mainly in urban highways and streets to
serve as pavement edge delineation, drainage
control, right of way reduction, aesthetics,
delireaction of pedestrian walkways, etc.
– To be considered a curb, some raised aspect or
vertical element is required:
• Barrier curbs – relatively high and steeped-faced
designed to deter vehicles from leaving the highway
• Mountable curbs – vehicles car cross them easily under
emergency conditions without discomfort.
4.5 Side walk
Sidewalk or walkways need to be accepted as integral part of
residential street, and in market, school, business, industrial
and sporting areas. Sidewalks constructed along streets or
highways should vary from 1.22m to 2.44m in residential
area. A minimum of 1.52m is recommended for Nigeria.

4.6 Side Slopes

Earth fills of usual height stand safely on slopes of 1.5 to
1.0. Slopes of cuts through ordinary undisturbed earth
remain in place with slopes of 1 to 1. Side slope vary,
depending on the type of material and topography of the
location. In general slopes should not be steeper than 3:1,
and the top of all slopes rounded. Back slopes should be 3:1
or flatter to make it easier for motorized equipment to be
used in maintenance operations. Fore slopes of 4:1 are used
a great deal in both cut and fill sections up to 3m in height.
4.7 Median
A median is that portion of divided highway separating opposing
traffic lanes, to provide the desired freedom from the
interference of opposing traffic, to provide safety refuge area for
out of control disabled vehicles and pedestrians, to provide for
speed changes and storage of left turning and U-turning
vehicles, etc.. Depending on the topography, a median may
provide space for drainage facilities.
Median can be classified as traversable, deterring and barrier.
Traversable median consists of painted stripes, buttons, and an
area of contrasting colour or texture, and does not present a
barrier to traffic movement. A deterring median incorporates any
of the features of traversable median with added physical
devices such as raised diagonal bars, low curbing's or
corrougation used to warn drivers. A barner median is one that
does not allow traffic to get across into the opposing traffic
lanes. On heavily travelled highway, a
high non mountable, sloped faced concrete barner known as New
Jersey or GM deflecting barner are used for some mult-lane rural
highways, a median separation of about 12m is provided to give a
driver ease and freedom of operation.

4.8 Right – of – way

The right- of- way width is determined by the space required for
the ultimate planned road way, including the pavement, shoulder,
median, side slope, and drainage ditchs. Nigerian standards
recommend a minimum right of way width of 30.48m for 2 lane
highway and 12.20m beyond the edge of pavement for multi-lane
highway in rural areas. For urban areas, the minimum right of way
is not to be less than the width required for the necessary cross
sectional elements. For a divided highway, AASHTO recommended
a minimum of 44.7m and a desirable width of 76.2m
in any case, sufficient right of way should be required right from
the first construction in order to avoid the expense of purchasing
developed property.
4.9 Bicycle and motorcycle lanes
A bicycle lane is that part of the street or highway
specifically reserved for the exclusive or preferential use of
bicycles or motor cycles riders. These lanes can be
delineated by stripping, signing or pavement markings.
The minimum lane width should be 1.2m and be located
between the vehicle travels lanes and the shoulders. This
concept is already being operated in Cotonou, Benin
Republic and should be encouraged in Nigeria where
motorcycle is a major means of transportation.

4.10 Other Section Elements

These include traffic barrier (guardrails, bridge railings,
impact attenuators), frontage roads outer separation,
Noise control, tunnels, pedestrian crossing (over passes
and under crossings, etc.
5.0 Intersections and interchanges

An intersection is the general area where two or more highways

join or cross one another at the same or different elevations. Each
highway radiating from an intersection and forming part of it is an
intersection leg. Two general types of intersections are:
(i) At - grade intersection which is a road junction at the same
elevation. (most common type)
(ii) Grade separated intersection or Interchange roads -intersecting
at different levels. There is no physical connection between the
separated roadway in a grade separation while connecting roads
known as ramps enable limited or full movement between the
separated roads at an interchange. The system is generally
referred to as flyover in Nigeria.
5.1 Reduction of Conflict Points
Intersections permit change in travel directions -
crossing and turning movements. Intersection design is thus aimed
at reducing potential conflicts of movement of vehicles.,
pedestrians and facilities.
The number of points of potential conflict increases
significantly with the numbers of intersection legs for example,
the intersection of a 2-way, 2- lane road (4 leg intersection)
with all turns permitted, can result in 32 potential points of
conflict with 8 diverging, 8 merging and 16 crossing
manoevres.
In intersection design, consideration has to be given to the
reduction or elimination of certain manoevres to reduce the
points of potentials conflict. This can be by spatial separation
provided through vertical or horizontal separation of the major
and minor roadways or by time separation provided by traffic
signals or provision of turning lanes or wide medians which
provide shelters for waiting vehicles.
5.2 At grade intersection
The basic types of intersection at grade are the T or Y
intersection (3 leg) and the 4 - leg and muti-leg intersections
Flaring may be added by widening the entering or leaving lane for
manoevrabilty and increase in capacity - thus we have flared T,
flared Y or flared 4 – leg intersections
Channelization: is the separation or regulation of conflicting
traffic movements into definite paths by the use of traffic islands or
pavement markings to maintain orderly movement of both vehicles
and pedestrians. Properly designed channelization systems increase
intersection capacity and decrease conflicts and accidents.

A special form of at grade intersection is the roundabout or

rotary intersection, placed at the confluence of 3 or more
intersection legs. The principle of the roundabout is that all traffic
is brought to the same speed within the intersection area and flow
is one-way around a central island. The normal direct and angular
movements are replaced by weaving movement such that merging,
diverging and crossing movements take place in the weaving
section between the entry and exit points.
 Roundabouts are useful at low volumes, but at high traffic volumes,
when 2 or more intersection legs approach capacity at the same time (in
markets, parks etc) it has been found that the roundabout does not
perform satisfactorily.
There is therefore the need to consider all these factors before providing
roundabout in the highway system.

5.3 Grade separation

The greatest efficiency, safety and capacity are attained at an
intersection when intersecting highways are separated in grades and
cross flow of traffic permitted at different levels without interruption. For
an interchange connecting roadways known as ramps are provided.
Although an interchange (or fly-over) is quite useful and an adaptable
solution for most of the intersection problems, its use is limited to those
cases where the required expenditure can be justified because of the
very high initial cost of construction.
There are many types of interchanges, generally described by the
pattern of ramp layout. The common types include the Trumpet or T,
Directional, Diamond, and Cloverleaf interchanges.
The grade separation structures: employed to
separate the grade of intersecting roadways are
through or partial through, and deck types, The
deck types are the most common, and may be
deck-types bridges, trusses, arches, girders, etc.
The through and partial through types are mainly
used on railroads.

6.0 Drainage Design

The provision of adequate drainage facilities
(gutters, ditches, culverts, storm sewers etc) to
convey excess surface and subsurface water
across, along or away from the highway or out of
the pavement is a major consideration in design of
highways.
Inadequate drainage facilities or slow drainage of water
out of the highway can lead to premature deterioration no
matter how good the pavement is . Various types of
facilities are used for drainage of surface and subsurface
water. The design of these facilities should involve the
following:
(i) Hydrological analysis – estimating the peak rates of run
off to be handled
(ii)Hydraulic design-selecting the types and sizes of
drainage facilities to most economically accommodate
the estimated flow from the hydrological studies
(iii)Making sure that the design does not create erosion
and other environmental problems.

Because of the heavy rainfall experienced in most parts of

Nigeria, the design of every highway, particularly in the
urban areas must consider provision of drainage facilities.
Conclusion

I have briefly touched most of the relevant elements in

geometric design of roads. However, there is no way this
topic can be fully treated in one lecture,it is usually treated
as a topic for one or two semesters in the university.

Thank you

References:
• A policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, American
Association of Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington D C 2004.
• Highway Manual, Part 1 Design. Federal Ministry of Works and Housing,
Lagos 1973.
• Oguara T.M. “ Highway Engineering: Geometric Design” Malthouse
Engineering Series, Lagos 2006