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• BJT operation
• BJT voltages and currents,
• CE, CB and CC characteristics,
• DC load line and bias point,
• base bias,
• emitter feedback bias,
• collector feedback bias,
• voltage divider bias,
• Thermal stability,
• biasing BJT switching circuits,
• transistor power dissipation and switching time,
• Testing of bipolar junction transistor with multi-meter,
• Reading datasheet of BJT.
Working of Bipolar Junction Transistor (NPN)
• Emitter-Base junction is forward biased; Collector-Base junction is reverse biased.
• As emitter is heavily doped, large number of electrons crosses the BE junction and enters
into base region. As base is lightly doped, fewer electrons recombines with holes in the
base region. Remaining large number of electrons travels to reverse-biased CB junction
quickly as base region is very narrow.
• These electrons then encounter the high positive force from
positively charged collector and hence they gain energy to cross
the reverse biased CB junction and collected by collector. These
electrons forms the collector current IC in the outer circuit.
• Due to V1, the electrons from the base is pulled into base lead,
constituting small base current IB, in order to maintain the
number of free holes into the base region. Otherwise, base
region becomes more negative (electrons and holes combine
with each other leaving only negatively charged acceptor ions
in p-type base) and repel further movement of electrons from
emitter into the base region.
• Free electrons in the emitter region constitute emitter current
IE .
• The conventional directions of current (opposite to flow of Operation of NPN transistor and
conventional direction of
electron) is shown in figure. current flow
Working of Bipolar Junction Transistor: Summary
IE IC
C
p B
I
B
E
Heavily doped
region
IE IC
C
B
n
IB E
How the BJT works
• Figure shows the energy levels
in an NPN transistor under no
externally applying voltages.
• In each of the N-type layers
conduction can take place by
the free movement of electrons
in the conduction band.
• In the P-type (filling) layer
conduction can take place by
the movement of the free holes
in the valence band.
• However, in the absence of any
externally applied electric field,
we find that depletion zones
form at both PN-Junctions, so
no charge wants to move from
NPN Bipolar Transistor one layer to another.
How the BJT works
• What happens when we apply
a moderate voltage between
the collector and base parts.
• The polarity of the applied
voltage is chosen to increase
the force pulling the N-type
electrons and P-type holes
apart.
• This widens the depletion
zone between the collector
and base and so no current
will flow.
• In effect we have reverse-
biassed the Base-Collector
Apply a Collector-Base voltage diode junction.
• What happens when we apply a
Charge Flow relatively small Emitter-Base voltage
whose polarity is designed to forward-
bias the Emitter-Base junction.
• This 'pushes' electrons from the Emitter
into the Base region and sets up a
current flow across the Emitter-Base
boundary.
• Once the electrons have managed to get
into the Base region they can respond to
the attractive force from the positively-
biassed Collector region.
• As a result the electrons which get into
the Base move swiftly towards the
Collector and cross into the Collector
region.
• Hence a Emitter-Collector current
Apply an Emitter-Base voltage magnitude is set by the chosen Emitter-
Base voltage applied.
• Hence an external current flowing in the
circuit.
Charge Flow • Some of free electrons crossing
the Base encounter a hole and
'drop into it'.
• As a result, the Base region loses
one of its positive charges (holes).
• The Base potential would become
more negative (because of the
removal of the holes) until it was
negative enough to repel any
more electrons from crossing the
Emitter-Base junction.
• The current flow would then stop.
• Three terminals:
– Base (B): very thin and lightly doped central region (little
recombination).
– Emitter (E) and collector (C) are two outer regions sandwiching
B.
• Normal operation (linear or active region):
– B-E junction forward biased; B-C junction reverse biased.
– The emitter emits (injects) majority charge into base region and
because the base very thin, most will ultimately reach the
collector.
– The emitter is highly doped while the collector is lightly doped.
– The collector is usually at higher voltage than the emitter.
Terminals & Operations
Operation Mode
Operation Mode
• Active:
– Most importance mode, e.g. for amplifier operation.
– The region where current curves are practically flat.
• Saturation:
– Barrier potential of the junctions cancel each other out
causing a virtual short.
– Ideal transistor behaves like a closed switch.
• Cutoff:
– Current reduced to zero
– Ideal transistor behaves like an open switch.
Operation Mode
Circuit Symbols
Circuit Configuration
Common Base Input Characteristics
EB – Forward Bias
CB – Reverse Bias
EB – Forward Bias
CB – Forward Bias
1. Input Characteristics are similar to that of Forward Biased Diode, that for
Small Change in VBE, Large Change in Emitter Current IE.
2. If a Piecewise Linear Approximation with Low Forward resistance is assumed,
then once Transistor is in Active Region, VBE=0.7 V
3. Input Characteristics Change due to VCB is so little that can be ignored.
• Small Change in Input Voltage ∆VEB gives Large change in Emitter Current
∆IE as per the Forward Bias Characteristics. ( Low Resistance)
• Collector Current due to this change in Emitter current is
∆IC = α∆IE
• Let IE = 1 mA. So IC= 1 mA.
• For the change of ∆VEB =0.1 Volt, ∆IE = 1 mA. For α = 0.95, ∆IC ≈ 1 mA
• For RL = 5 kΩ , VL = 5 kΩ X 1 mA = 5 V to changes to VL = 5 kΩ X 2 mA = 10 V
• So, Input Voltage Change of 0.1 Volts gives Output Voltage Change of 5
Volts.
• Gain = 50 . Transfer of Current from Low Resistance to High Resistance ckt.
Common Base Transfer Ratio ( α )
ΔIC
αac
ΔIE
Common Emitter Configuration:
Saturation Region :
Left to the Vertical Line of VCEsat.
Cut-off Region:
Different compared to CB Configuration.
In CB Configuration for IE=0, IC = ICBO ≈ 0,
So Characteristic Curve for IE=0 was almost Voltage Axis
line.
IE = I C + I B IC = IE
Actual Currents
ICBO is usually so small that it can be ignored, except in high power transistors and in high
temperature environments.
In DC mode: IC
β dc
IB
In AC mode:
IC
ac VCE constant
IB
typically ranges from about 50 to over 400.
On Specification Sheet dc is displayed as hFE where h stands for Hybrid
Parameter, F for Forward Current Transfer and E for Common Emitter
Configuration Respectively.
2.7 mA
β DC V CE 7.5
25 A
108
Relation between α and β
β
α
β 1
α
β
1- α
Relation between ICBO and ICEO
• Fixed-bias circuit
• Emitter-stabilized bias circuit
• Collector-emitter loop
• Voltage divider bias circuit
• DC bias with voltage feedback
Fixed Bias
The Base-Emitter Loop
V CC V BE
IB
RB
Collector-Emitter Loop
Collector current:
I C I B
VCE VCC I C R C
Saturation
V CC
I Csat
RC
VCE 0 V
Load Line Analysis
more …
Circuit Values Affect the Q-Point
more …
Circuit Values Affect the Q-Point
Emitter-Stabilized Bias Circuit
Since IE = (b + 1)IB:
VCC - I B R B - ( 1)IB R E 0
VE I E R E
From Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
I R V
E E
I R V
CE C C CC
0
VC VCE VE VCC - I C R C
Since IE IC:
VCE VCC – I C (R C R E )
Also:
VB VCC – I R R B VBE VE
VE I E R E
VC VCE VE VCC - I C R C
VB VCC – I R R B VBE VE
Improved Biased Stability
VCE VCC I C R C I E R E
IE IC
VCE V CC I C (R C R E )
Voltage Divider Bias Analysis
Another way to
improve the stability
of a bias circuit is to
add a feedback path
from collector to
base.
The selection of a proper quiescent point generally depends on the following factors:
(a) The amplitude of the signal to be handled by the amplifier and distortion level
in signal
(b) The load to which the amplifier is to work for a corresponding supply voltage
54
The DC Operating Point
For a transistor circuit to amplify it must be properly biased with dc
voltages. The dc operating point between saturation and cutoff is
called the Q-point. The goal is to set the Q-point such that that it
does not go into saturation or cutoff when an a ac signal is applied.
Requirements of biasing network
It may be noted that Lower is the value of SIco better is the stability
Transistor Switching Networks
Transistors with only the DC source applied can be used as electronic switches.
Switching Circuit Calculations
Saturation current:
VCC
I Csat
RC
To ensure saturation:
I Csat
IB
dc
Emitter-collector resistance
at saturation and cutoff:
VCEsat
R sat
I Csat
VCC
R cutoff
I CEO
Switching Time
t on t r t d
t off t s t f
• The areas of operation for a transistor switch are known as
the Saturation Region and the Cut-off Region.
• This means then that we can ignore the operating Q-point biasing and
voltage divider circuitry required for amplification, and use the
transistor as a switch by driving it back and forth between its “fully-
OFF” (cut-off) and “fully-ON” (saturation) regions.
Cut-off Characteristics