MAINTAINING NETWORKING

COMPONENTS.
Connecting to the Internet
•Internet is the largest data network on earth.
•A physical connection is made by connecting a specialized
expansion card such as a modem or a network interface card (NIC)
from a computer (PC) to a network.
•The logical connection uses standards called protocols.
•A protocol is a formal description of a set of rules and conventions
that govern how devices on a network communicate.
•Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite is
the primary protocol used on the Internet. TCP/IP is a suite of
protocols that work together to transmit data.
•File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used to download files and programs
from the Internet.

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 Connecting to the Internet
PC basics
• PC components:
• Transistor – Device that amplifies a signal or opens and closes a
circuit.
• Integrated circuit (IC) – Device made of semiconductor material
that contains many transistors and performs a specific task.
• Resistor – Device made of material that opposes the flow of electric
current.
• Capacitor – Electronic component that stores energy in the form of
an electrostatic field that consists of two conducting metal plates
separated by an insulating material.
• Connector – The part of a cable that plugs into a port or interface.
• Light emitting diode (LED) – Semiconductor device that emits light
when a current passes through it.

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 Connecting to the Internet
PC basics
• Personal Computer Subsystems:
• Printed circuit board (PCB) – A thin plate on which chips or integrated circuits and other
electronic components are placed.
• CD-ROM drive – Compact disk read-only memory drive, which is a device that can read
information from a CD-ROM.
• Central processing unit (CPU) – The brains of the computer where most calculations
take place. 
• Floppy disk drive – A disk drive that can read and write to floppy disks.
• Hard disk drive – The device that reads and writes data on a hard disk.
• Microprocessor – A silicon chip that contains a CPU.
• Motherboard – The main circuit board of a microcomputer
• Bus – A collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one part of a computer
to another.
• Random-access memory (RAM) – Also known as Read-Write memory, new data can be
written to it and stored data can be read from it. RAM requires electrical power to maintain
data storage. If the computer is turned off or loses power, all data stored in RAM is lost.
• Read-only memory (ROM) – Computer memory on which data has been prerecorded.
Once data has been written onto a ROM chip, it cannot be removed and can only be read.
• System unit – The main part of a PC, which includes the chassis, microprocessor, main
memory, bus, and ports. The system unit does not include the keyboard, monitor, or any
external devices connected to the computer.
• Expansion slot – A socket on the motherboard where a circuit board can be inserted to
add new capabilities to the computer.
• Power supply – The component that supplies power to a computer.

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 Connecting to the Internet
PC basics
• Backplane Components:
• Backplane – The large circuit board that contains sockets for
expansion cards.
• Network interface card (NIC) – An expansion board inserted into a
computer so that the computer can be connected to a network.
• Video card – A board that plugs into a PC to give it display
capabilities.
• Audio card – An expansion board that enables a computer to
manipulate and output sounds.
• Parallel port – An interface capable of transferring more than one
bit simultaneously that is used to connect external devices such as
printers.
• Serial port – An interface that can be used for serial
communication, in which only 1 bit is transmitted at a time.
• Mouse port – A port designed for connecting a mouse to a PC.
• Power cord – A cord used to connect an electrical device to an
electrical outlet that provides power to the device.

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 Connecting to the Internet
Network interface card
• A network interface card (NIC) is a printed circuit board that
provides network communication capabilities to and from a personal
computer
• Network Interface Card (NIC) A NIC (pronounced 'nick') is also
known as a network card. It connects the computer to the cabling,
which in turn links all of the computers on the network together.
Each computer on a network must have a network card. Most
modern network cards are 10/100 NICs and can operate at either
10Mbps or 100Mbps. Only NICs supporting a minimum of 100Mbps
should be used in new installations students. Computers with a
wireless connection to a network also use a network card (see
Advice Sheet 20 for more information on wireless networking).

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 Connecting to the Internet
Network interface card
• The NIC uses an Interrupt Request (IRQ), an I/O
address, and upper memory space to work with the
operating system.
• An IRQ is a signal informing the CPU that an event
needing attention has occurred. An IRQ is sent over a
hardware line to the microprocessor when a key is
pressed on the keyboard.
• When selecting a NIC, consider the following factors:

• Protocols – Ethernet, Token Ring, or FDDI

• Types of media – Twisted-pair, coaxial, wireless, or
fiber-optic
• Type of system bus – PCI or ISA
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 Connecting to the Internet
NIC and Modem Device
Laptop NIC

Desktop NIC
Modem

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 Connecting to the Internet
NIC and modem installation

Situations that require NIC installation include the following:

• Adding a NIC to a PC that does not already have one
• Replacing a bad or damaged NIC
• Upgrading from a 10-Mbps NIC to a 10/100-Mbps NIC
To perform the installation of a NIC or modem the following resources may be
required:
• Knowledge of how the adapter is configured, including jumpers and plug-
and-play software
• Availability of diagnostic tools
• Ability to resolve hardware resource conflicts

A modem: or modulator-demodulator, is a device that provides the computer

with connectivity to a telephone line.
• The modem converts (modulates) the data from a digital signal to an analog
signal that is compatible with a standard phone line.

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 Connecting to the Internet
TCP/IP description and
configuration
• Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP) is a set of protocols or
rules developed to allow cooperating
computers to share resources across a
network.

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 Connecting to the Internet
Testing connectivity with ping
• Ping is a utility used to verify Internet connectivity.
• The ping command works by sending multiple IP packets to a
specified destination. Each packet sent is a request for a reply.
• The ping command is used to test the NIC transmit/receive
function, the TCP/IP configuration, and network connectivity.

The following examples describe the types of ping tests that are
commonly used in a network:
• ping 127.0.0.1 - This ping is unique and is called an internal loop
back test. It verifies the operation of the TCP/IP stack and NIC
transmit/receive function.
• ping IP address of host computer - A ping to a host PC verifies the
TCP/IP address configuration for the local host and connectivity to
the host.
• ping default-gateway IP address - A ping to the default gateway
verifies whether the router that connects the local network to other
networks can be reached.
• ping remote destination IP address - A ping to a remote destination
verifies connectivity to a remote host.

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 Connecting to the Internet  
Web browser and plug-ins
A web browser performs the following functions:
• Contacts a web server
• Requests information
• Receives information
• Displays the results on the screen
• A web browser is software that interprets hypertext markup language (HTML), one of
the languages used to code web page content.
• HTML, the most common markup language, can display graphics, play sound, movies,
and other multimedia files.
• Two of the most popular web browsers are Internet Explorer (IE) and Netscape
Communicator.
Netscape Navigator:
• The first popular browser
• Takes less disk space
• Displays HTML files, performs e-mail and file transfers, and other functions
Internet Explorer (IE):
• Powerfully integrated with other Microsoft products
• Takes more disk space
• Displays HTML files, performs e-mail and file transfers, and other functions
These applications work in conjunction with the browser to launch the program required
to view the following special files:
• Flash – plays multimedia files, which was created by Macromedia Flash
• Quicktime – plays video files, which was created by Apple
• Real Player – plays audio files
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 NETWORKING FUNDAMENTALS
Networking Terminology
• A repeater is a network device used to regenerate a signal.
• Repeaters regenerate analog or digital signals distorted by
transmission loss due to attenuation.
• A repeater does not perform intelligent routing like a bridge or router.
• Hubs concentrate connections. In other words, they take a group of
hosts and allow the network to see them as a single unit.
• Bridges convert network transmission data formats as well as
perform basic data transmission management.
• Bridges, as the name implies, provide connections between LANs.
• Perform a check on the data to determine whether it should cross
the bridge or not.
• Switches add more intelligence to data transfer management.
• Transfer the data only to the connection that needs that data.
• Routers can regenerate signals, concentrate multiple connections,
convert data transmission formats, and manage data transfers.

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 Networking Terminology
Networking devices

Bridge
Repeater

Router

Hub
Switch

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 Networking Terminology
Network topology
• Network topology: defines the structure of the network.
• Physical topology: which is the actual layout of the wire or media.
• Logical topology: which defines how the media is accessed by the hosts for
sending data.
The physical topologies that are commonly used are as follows:
• A bus topology uses a single backbone cable that is terminated at both ends. All
the hosts connect directly to this backbone.
• A ring topology connects one host to the next and the last host to the first. This
creates a physical ring of cable.
• A star topology connects all cables to a central point of concentration.  
• An extended star topology links individual stars together by connecting the hubs
and/or switches.
• A hierarchical topology is similar to an extended star. The system is linked to a
computer that controls the traffic on the topology.
• A mesh topology is implemented to provide as much protection as possible from
interruption of service.
The use of a mesh topology in the networked control systems of a nuclear power
plant would be an excellent example.
The two most common types of logical topologies are broadcast and token
passing:
• Broadcast topology simply means that each host sends its data to all other hosts on
the network medium. It is first come, first serve.
• Token passing controls network access by passing an electronic token sequentially
to each host. If the host has no data to send, it passes the token to the next host
and the process repeats itself.
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 Networking Terminology
Network topology
Bus topology Extended star topology

Ring Topology

Mesh Topology

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 Networking Terminology
Network protocols
• Protocol suites are collections of protocols that enable
network communication from one host through the
network to another host.
• A protocol: is a formal description of a set of rules and
conventions that govern a particular aspect of how
devices on a network communicate.
Protocols control all aspects of data communication,
which include the following:
• How the physical network is built
• How computers connect to the network
• How the data is formatted for transmission
• How that data is sent
• How to deal with errors
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 Networking Terminology
Local-area networks (LANs
LANs consist of the following components:
• Computers
• Network interface cards
• Peripheral devices
• Networking media
• Network devices
Some common LAN technologies are:
• Ethernet
• Token Ring
• FDDI

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 Networking Terminology
LANs and LAN Devices

Bridge
Repeater

Router

Hub
Switch

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 Networking Terminology
Wide-area networks (WANs)
WANs are designed to do the following:
• Operate over a large geographically separated areas
• Allow users to have real-time communication capabilities with other
users
• Provide full-time remote resources connected to local services
• Provide e-mail, World Wide Web, file transfer, and e-commerce
services
Some common WAN technologies are:
• Modems
• Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
• Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
• Frame Relay
• US (T) and Europe (E) Carrier Series – T1, E1, T3, E3
• Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

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 Networking Terminology
Metropolitan-area networks
(MANs)
• A MAN is a network that spans a
metropolitan area such as a city or
suburban area.
• A MAN usually consists of two or more
LANs in a common geographic area.

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 Bandwidth
Importance of bandwidth
• Bandwidth is defined as the amount of information that can flow
through a network connection in a given period of time.
• Throughput refers to actual measured bandwidth, at a specific time
of day, using specific Internet routes, and while a specific set of data
is transmitted on the network.
The following are some of the factors that determine throughput:
• Internetworking devices
• Type of data being transferred
• Network topology
• Number of users on the network
• User computer
• Server computer
• Power conditions

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 Networking Models
OSI model
• A data communications protocol is a set of rules or an agreement
that determines the format and transmission of data.
• The OSI reference model is a framework that is used to understand
how information travels throughout a network.
Dividing the network into seven layers provides the following
advantages:
• It breaks network communication into smaller, more manageable
parts.
• It standardizes network components to allow multiple vendor
development and support.
• It allows different types of network hardware and software to
communicate with each other.
• It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers.
• It divides network communication into smaller parts to make
learning it easier to understand.

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 Networking Models
The OSI Model

7 Application Network Process to Application

Provide network services to application processes (such
as Electronic mail, file transfer and terminal emulation)
Data Representation
6 Presentation •Ensure Data is readable by receiving system
•Format of Data
•Data structure
•Negotiate data transfer syntax for application layer

Interhost communication
5 Session Establishes, Manage, and terminate session
between applications

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 Networking Models
The OSI Model
End to End Connections
•Concerning with transportation issues between hosts
•Data transport reliability
4 Transport
•Establish, maintain, terminate virtual circuits
•Fault detections and recovering information flow control
Network address and Best path determinations
•Delivery individual packets from source host to destination host
3 Network •IP Addressing
•Routing
Direct link control, Access to Media
2 Data Link •Provide reliable transfer of data across media
•Physical addressing, network topology, error notification,
flow control
Binary Transmission
1 physical
Wires, connectors, voltage, Data rates
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 Networking Models
Peer-to-peer communications
Destination Source
7 Application Data 7 Application

6 Presentation Data 6 Presentation

5 Session Data
5 Session

4 Transport Segments 4 Transport

Packets 3 Network
3 Network

2 Data Link Frames 2 Data Link

Bits
1 Physical 1
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 Networking Models
TCP/IP model
• The historical and technical standard of the Internet is the TCP/IP model.
• The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) created the TCP/IP reference model,
because it wanted to design a network that could survive any conditions, including a
nuclear war.
The TCP/IP model has the following four layers:
• Application layer
• Transport layer
• Internet layer
• Network access layer
 TCP is a connection-oriented protocol.
 It maintains a dialogue between source and destination while packaging application
layer information into units called segments.
Some of the most commonly used application layer protocols include the following:
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
• Domain Name System (DNS)
• Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
The common transport layer protocols include:
• Transport Control Protocol (TCP)
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
The primary protocol of the Internet layer is:
• Internet Protocol (IP)
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 Networking Models
TCP/IP model
A comparison of the OSI model and the TCP/IP models will point out
some similarities and differences.
• Both have layers.
• Both have application layers, though they include very different services.
• Both have comparable transport and network layers.
• Both models need to be known by networking professionals.
• Both assume packets are switched. This means that individual packets may
take different paths to reach the same destination. This is contrasted with
circuit-switched networks where all the packets take the same path.
Differences include:
• TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its
application layer.
• TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into the network
access layer.
• TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers.
• TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the Internet developed, so
the TCP/IP model gains credibility just because of its protocols. In contrast,
networks are not usually built on the OSI protocol, even though the OSI
model is used as a guide.
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 Networking Models
TCP/IP model

FTP HTTP SMTP DNS DNS TFTP

TCP UDP

IP

Internet LAN Many LANs

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and WANs
 Networking Models
Comparing TCP/IP and OSI Model
OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Application
Application
Presentation

Session

Transport Transport

Network Internet

Data Link
Network
Access
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 NETWOKING MEDIA
Copper Media
Cable specifications
Cables have different specifications and expectations
pertaining to performance:
• What speeds for data transmission can be achieved
using a particular type of cable?
• The speed of bit transmission through the cable is
extremely important.
• What kind of transmission is being considered? Will the
transmissions be digital or will they be analog-based?
• How far can a signal travel through a particular type of
cable before attenuation of that signal becomes a
concern?
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 Copper Media
Cable specifications
• Some examples of Ethernet specifications which relate to cable type
include:
• 10BASE-T
• 10BASE5
• 10BASE2
• 10BASE-T refers to the speed of transmission at 10 Mbps. The type of
transmission is baseband, or digitally interpreted. The T stands for twisted
pair.
• 10BASE5 refers to the speed of transmission at 10 Mbps. The type of
transmission is baseband, or digitally interpreted.
• The 5 represents the capability of the cable to allow the signal to travel for
approximately 500 meters before attenuation could disrupt the ability of the
receiver to appropriately interpret the signal being received.
• 10BASE2 refers to the speed of transmission at 10 Mbps. The type of
transmission is baseband, or digitally interpreted.
• The 2, in 10BASE2, represents the capability of the cable to allow the signal
to travel for approximately 200 meters, before attenuation could disrupt the
ability of the receiver to appropriately interpret the signal being received.

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 Copper Media
Coaxial cable
• Coaxial cable consists of a hollow outer cylindrical
conductor that surrounds a single inner wire made of two
conducting elements.
• Coaxial cable is more expensive to install than twisted-
pair cable.

Outer Jacket Braided Copper Shielding

Copper Conductor

Plastic Insulation
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 Copper Media
STP cable
• Shielded twisted-pair cable (STP) combines the techniques of shielding,
cancellation, and twisting of wires.
• STP reduces electrical noise within the cable such as pair to pair coupling
and crosstalk.
• STP also reduces electronic noise from outside the cable, for example
electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI).

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 Copper Media
UTP cable
• Unshielded twisted-pair cable (UTP) is a four-pair wire medium
used in a variety of networks.
Unshielded twisted-pair cable has many advantages:
• It is easy to install and is less expensive than other types of
networking media.
• In fact, UTP costs less per meter than any other type of LAN
cabling.
• However, the real advantage is the size.
The following are the types of cable connections used between
internet work devices:
• The cable that connects from the switch port to the computer NIC
port is called a straight-through cable.
• The cable that connects from one switch port to another switch port
is called a crossover cable.
• The cable that connects the RJ-45 adapter on the com port of the
computer to the console port of the router or switch is called a
rollover cable.

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 Copper Media
Unshielded Twisted pair cable
Twisted Pair

Colour Coded
Plastic Insulation

Outer Jacket

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 Copper Media
Straight through Cable Pinout

Pin 1 Pin 1
Pin 2 Pin 2
Pin 3 Pin 3

Pin 4 Pin 4

Pin 5 Pin 5

Pin 6 Pin 6

Pin 7 Pin 7

Pin 8 Pin 8

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 Copper Media
Crossover Cable pin out

Pin 3
Pin 1
Pin 2 Pin 6
Pin 3 Pin 1
Pin 4 Pin 4
Pin 5
Pin 5
Pin6
Pin 2
Pin 7
Pin 7
Pin 8
Pin 8

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 Copper Media
Rollover Cable

Pin 1 Pin 8
Pin 2 Pin 7
Pin 3 Pin 6
Pin 4 Pin 5

Pin 5 Pin 4

Pin 6 Pin 3
Pin 7 Pin 2
Pin 8 Pin 1

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 Optical Media
Multimode fiber
• The part of an optical fiber through which
light rays travel is called the core of the
fiber.

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 Optical Media
Single-mode fiber
• Single-mode fiber consists of the same parts as multimode.
• The outer jacket of single-mode fiber is usually yellow.
• The major difference between multimode and single-mode
fiber is that single-mode allows only one mode of light to
propagate through the smaller, fiber-optic core.

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 Optical Media
Other optical components
• Most of the data sent over a LAN is in the form of electrical signals.
• However, optical fiber links use light to send data.
• The transmitter receives data to be transmitted from switches and
routers.
• This data is in the form of electrical signals.
• The transmitter converts the electronic signals into their equivalent
light pulses.
There are two types of light sources used to encode and
transmit the data through the cable:
• A light emitting diode (LED) producing infrared light with
wavelengths of either 850nm or 1310 nm.
• Light amplification by stimulated emission radiation (LASER) a light
source producing a thin beam of intense infrared light usually with
wavelengths of 1310nm or 1550 nm.

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 Wireless Media
Wireless LAN organizations and standards
• An understanding of the regulations and standards that
apply to wireless technology will ensure that deployed
networks will be interoperable and in compliance.
• A key technology contained within the 802.11 standard is
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS).
• The next standard approved was 802.11b, which
increased transmission capabilities to 11 Mbps.
• 802.11b may also be called Wi-Fi™ or high-speed
wireless and refers to DSSS systems that operate at 1,
2, 5.5 and 11 Mbps.
• 802.11a covers WLAN devices operating in the 5 GHZ
transmission band.
• 802.11g provides the same throughout as 802.11a but
with backwards compatibility for 802.11b devices using
Othogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
modulation technology.
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 CABLE TESTING
Background for Studying
Frequency-Based Cable Testing
Analog and digital signals in time and
frequency.
• To understand the complexities of
networking signals and cable testing,
examine how analog signals vary with time
and with frequency.

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 Signals and Noise
Attenuation and insertion loss on copper media

• Attenuation is the decrease in signal amplitude over the

length of a link.
• Long cable lengths and high signal frequencies
contribute to greater signal attenuation.
There are several factors that contribute to attenuation:
• The resistance of the copper cable converts some of the
electrical energy of the signal to heat.
• Signal energy is also lost when it leaks through the
insulation of the cable and by impedance caused by
defective connectors.

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 Signals and Noise
Attenuation

A Network cable between Computer

Transmitter
Receiver

A digital Signal
Weak received Signal
Attenuates as it travels
Strong Original Signal over a network

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 Signals and Noise
Sources of noise on copper media
• Noise is any electrical energy on the transmission cable that makes
it difficult for a receiver to interpret the data sent from the
transmitter.
• TIA/EIA-568-B certification of a cable now requires testing for a
variety of types of noise.
• Crosstalk involves the transmission of signals from one wire to a
nearby wire.
• Twisted-pair cable is designed to take advantage of the effects of
crosstalk in order to minimize noise.

Bad Connector-Wires are untwisted for Good Connector-Wires are untwisted to

too great length the extent necessary to attach the
connector.
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 Signals and Noise
Cable testing standards
• The Ethernet standard specifies that each
of the pins on an RJ-45 connector have a
particular purpose.
• A NIC transmits signals on pins 1 and 2,
and it receives signals on pins 3 and 6.

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CABLING THE LANS AND WANS
Cabling the LAN
Ethernet media and connector requirements
• Before selecting an Ethernet implementation,
consider the media and connector requirements
for each implementation.
• Also, consider the level of performance needed
by the network.
• The cables and connector specifications used to
support Ethernet implementations are derived
from the Electronic Industries Association and
the Telecommunications Industry Association
(EIA/TIA) standards body.

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 Cabling the LAN
Ethernet Media and Connector Requirements
10BASE2 10BASE5 10BASE-T 100BASE-TX 100BASE-FX

Media 50- Ohm 50-Ohm EIA/TIA EIA/TIA 62.5/125

Coaxial Coaxial Category Category 5 Multmode
(Thinnet) (Thicknet) 3,4,5 UTP, UTP, two Pair fiber
two Pair
Maximum 185m 500m 100m (328 100m (328 400m (1312.3
Segment (606.94 (1640.4 feet) feet) feet)
Length feet) feet)
Topology Bus Bus Star Star Star

Connector BNC Attachmen ISO 8877 Duplex media

t Unit (RJ-45) interface
Interface connector
(MIC)
(AUI) ST or SC
connector
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 Cabling the LAN
UTP implementation
• EIA/TIA specifies an RJ-45 connector for UTP
cable.
• The letters RJ stand for registered jack, and the
number 45 refers to a specific wiring sequence.
• The RJ-45 connector is the male component,
crimped on the end of the cable.
• The jack is the female component in a network
device, wall outlet, or patch panel.

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 Cabling the LAN
UTP implementation
Use straight-through cables for the following cabling:
• Switch to router
• Switch to PC or server
• Hub to PC or server
Use crossover cables for the following cabling:
• Switch to switch
• Switch to hub
• Hub to hub
• Router to router
• PC to PC
• Router to PC
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 Cabling the LAN
UTP Implementation-Straight
through
• Wo-o-wg-bl-wbl-g-wbr-b Wo-o-wg-bl-wbl-g-wbr-b

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 Cabling the LAN
Interconnecting device Using
Crossover
Wo-o-wg-b-wb-g-wbr-br wg-g-wo-b-wb-o-wbr-br

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 Cabling the LAN
Wireless
• A wireless network can be created with much less cabling than
other networks.
• Wireless signals are electromagnetic waves that travel through the
air.
• Wireless networks use Radio Frequency (RF), laser, infrared (IR), or
satellite/microwaves to carry signals from one computer to another
without a permanent cable connection.
• At the core of wireless communication are devices called
transmitters and receivers.
• The transmitter converts source data to electromagnetic (EM)
waves that are passed to the receiver.
• The receiver then converts these electromagnetic waves back into
data for the destination.
• All devices in wireless LANs (WLANs) must have the appropriate
wireless network card installed.
• The two most common wireless technologies used for networking
are IR and RF.

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 Cabling the LAN
Wireless Media
Access Points
(transceivers)

Workstation
Server

Radio tower Laptop

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Cabling the LAN
Wireless Media

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 Introduction to TCP/IP
Comparing the OSI model and the TCP/IP model
The following is a comparison of the OSI model and the TCP/IP model noting
the similarities and differences:
• Similarities of the OSI and TCP/IP models:
• Both have layers
• Both have application layers, though they include very different services
• Both have comparable transport and network layers
• Packet-switched, not circuit-switched, technology is assumed
• Networking professionals need to know both models
Differences of the OSI and TCP/IP models:
• TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer into its application
layer
• TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into one layer
• TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers
• TCP/IP transport layer using UDP does not always guarantee reliable
delivery of packets as the transport layer in the OSI model does

• The Internet is developed by the standards of the TCP/IP protocols. The

TCP/IP model gains credibility because of its protocols. In contrast,
networks typically are not built on the OSI protocol.

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 Introduction to TCP/IP
IP addressing
• For any two systems to communicate, they must be able to identify and locate each
other.
• This uses the A or B to identify the network and the number sequence to identify the
individual host.
• For any two systems to communicate, they must be able to identify and locate each
other. While these addresses in Figure are not actual network addresses, they
represent and show the concept of address grouping. This uses the A or B to identify
the network and the number sequence to identify the individual host.
• A computer may be connected to more than one network. In this situation, the system
must be given more than one address.
• A device is not said to have an address, but that each of the connection points, or
interfaces, on that device has an address to a network.
• This will allow other computers to locate the device on that particular network
• Each computer in a TCP/IP network must be given a unique identifier, or IP address.
• This address, operating at Layer 3, allows one computer to locate another computer
on a network.
• MAC addresses operate at Layer 2 of the OSI model.
• An IP address is a 32-bit sequence of 1s and 0s.
• To make the IP address easier to use, the address is usually written as four decimal
numbers separated by periods.
• For example, an IP address of one computer is 192.168.1.2.
• Another computer might have the address 128.10.2.1.
• Each part of the address is called an octet because it is made up of eight binary digits.
• For example, the IP address 192.168.1.8 would be
11000000.10101000.00000001.00001000 in binary notation. Prepared by:Sir Isaack Justin
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 Internet Addresses
Decimal and binary conversion
• There are many ways to solve a problem.
• There are also several ways to convert decimal numbers to binary
numbers. One method is presented here, however it is not the only
method.
• If this process is designed to be working with computers, the most
logical place to start is with the largest values that will fit into a byte
or two bytes.
• As mentioned earlier, the most common grouping of bits is eight,
which make up one byte.
• To accommodate this, bytes are combined. Instead of having two
eight-bit numbers, one 16-bit number is created.
• Instead of three eight-bit numbers, one 24-bit number is created.
• Start by calculating a couple of examples, the first being 6,783.
Since this number is greater than 255, the largest value possible in
a single byte, two bytes will be used.
• Start calculating from 215.
• The binary equivalent of 6,783 is 00011010 01111111.
• Since one million is greater than the largest value that can be held
in two bytes, 65535, at least three bytes will be needed.
• By multiplying by two until 24 bits, three bytes, is reached, the value
will be 8,388,608. Prepared by:Sir Isaack Justin
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 Internet Addresses
IPv4 addressing
• A router forwards packets from the originating network to the
destination network using the IP protocol.
• The packets must include an identifier for both the source and
destination networks.
• When the packet arrives at a router connected to the destination
network, the router uses the IP address to locate the particular
computer connected to that network.
• When the mail is routed, it must first be delivered to the post office
at the destination city using the zip code.
• Accordingly, every IP address has two parts.
• One part identifies the network where the system is connected, and
a second part identifies that particular system on the network.
• This kind of address is called a hierarchical address, because it
contains different levels.
• An IP address combines these two identifiers into one number.
• The first part identifies the system's network address.
• The second part, called the host part, identifies which particular
machine it is on the network.
• Class A addresses are assigned to larger networks.
• Class B addresses are used for medium-sized networks, and Class
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 Internet Addresses
Idenfying Adresses Classes

Adress Class Number of Networks Number of Host per

Network

A 126 16,777,216

B 16,384 65,535

C 2,097,152 254

D N/A N/A

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 Internet Addresses
Idenfying Adresses Classes

IP Address Class High Order Bits First Octet Number of Bits

Address Range in the Network
Address

Class A 0 0-127 8

Class B 10 128-191 16

Class C 110 192-223 24

Class D 1110 224-239 28

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 Class A, B, C, D, and E IP addresses
• To accommodate different size networks and aid in classifying these networks, IP addresses
are divided into groups called classes.
• Each complete 32-bit IP address is broken down into a network part and a host part.
• The Class A address was designed to support extremely large networks, with more than 16
million host addresses available.
• Class A IP addresses use only the first octet to indicate the network address.
• The remaining three octets provide for host addresses.
• The first bit of a Class A address is always 0.
• With that first bit a 0, the lowest number that can be represented is 00000000, decimal 0.
• The highest number that can be represented is 01111111, decimal 127.
• Any address that starts with a value between 1 and 126 in the first octet is a Class A address.
• The Class B address was designed to support the needs of moderate to large-sized
networks.
• A Class B IP address uses the first two of the four octets to indicate the network address.
• The other two octets specify host addresses.
• The first two bits of the first octet of a Class B address are always 10.
• Any address that starts with a value in the range of 128 to 191 in the first octet is a Class B
address.
• The Class C address space is the most commonly used of the original address classes.
• This address space was intended to support small networks with a maximum of 254 hosts.
• The Class D address class was created to enable multicasting in an IP address.
• A multicast address is a unique network address that directs packets with that destination
address to predefined groups of IP addresses.
• The Class D address space, much like the other address spaces, is mathematically
constrained.
• A Class E address has been defined.
• Therefore, no Class E addresses have been released for use in the Internet.
 Internet Addresses
Adress Class Prefixes

Class A Network Host

Octet 1 2 3 4

Class B Network Host

Octet 1 2 3 4

Class C Network Host

Octet 1 2 3 4

Class D Host
Octet 1 2 3 4

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 Internet Addresses
Introduction to subnetting
• Subnetting is another method of managing IP addresses.
• This method of dividing full network address classes into smaller
pieces has prevented complete IP address exhaustion.
• As a system administrator it is important to understand subnetting as
a means of dividing and identifying separate networks throughout the
LAN.
• Subnetting a network means to use the subnet mask to divide the
network and break a large network up into smaller, more efficient
and manageable segments, or subnets.
• It is important to know how many subnets or networks are needed
and how many hosts will be needed on each network.
• Subnet addresses include the network portion, plus a subnet field
and a host field.
• The subnet field and the host field are created from the original host
portion for the entire network.
• To create a subnet address, a network administrator borrows bits
from the host field and designates them as the subnet field.
• The broadcast number would then be the .255 network.
• The maximum number of bits that can be borrowed can be any
number that leaves at least two bits remaining, for the host number. 
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 Internet Addresses
IPv4 versus IPv6
• The rapid and large increase in the size of Internet routing tables
occurred as more Class C networks came online. The resulting
flood of new network information threatened the ability of Internet
routers to cope effectively.
• These extensions are specifically designed to improve the efficiency
with which the 32-bit address space can be used.
• IPv6 uses 128 bits rather than the 32 bits currently used in IPv4.
• IPv6 uses hexadecimal numbers to represent the 128 bits.
• IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long, written in hexadecimal form, and
separated by colons.
• After years of planning and development, IPv6 is slowly being
implemented in select networks.
• Eventually, IPv6 may replace IPv4 as the dominant Internet
protocol.

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 Internet Addresses
IPv4 and IPv6

Internet Protocal Version 6 (IPv6) 16 octects

11010001.11011100.11001001.01110001.11010001.11011100

110011001.01110001.11010001.11011100.11001001.

01110001.11010001.11011100.11001001.01110001

A524:72D3:2C80:DD02:0029:EC7A:002B:EA73

3.4x10 38 IP Addresses

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