SOC 101: Introduction to Sociology

Research Methodology

Farhana sultana
Lecturer
Dept. of Political Science and Sociology
http://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/7065.html
Research
Research as a process
Systematic Study of facts
(Re)-Search
Bring out your critical thinking approach
Apply the idea of sociological
imagination
Purpose of research
In order to generate knowledge on a
particular topic/ area by applying
scientific method.

To provide a solution by understanding

the root cause of a problem

To provide a wider understanding on a

particular topic
What does it mean to be scientific?
Science refers to the body of knowledge obtained by
methods based on systematic observation.
Social science is the study of the social features of
humans and the ways in which they interact and change
following
◦ Organised, systematic study of phenomena (i.e., human
behaviour)
Of course there is a great difference
Social sciences: Sociology, Anthropology, economics,
history, psychology, political science.
Human society is the living laboratory for social
science.
 What is Scientific Method
The scientific method is a systematic, organized series
of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and
consistency in researching a problem.

Science is the use of systematic methods of empirical

investigation, the analysis at data, theoretical thinking
and the logical assessment of arguments to develop a
body at knowledge about a particular subject matter.
Sociology is a scientific endeavour, according to this
definition, because it involves systematic methods of
empirical investigation, the analysis of data and the
assessment of theories in the light of evidence and
logical argument. Studying human beings, however,
 Definition of Scientific Method
 It is a way of doing something in a systematic way. It is a standard operating procedure.

 “Scientific method is nothing more than thinking (and acting) according to a set of rules”
(Adams & Schvaneveldt, 1985, p12). It is “organized common sense”. 

 According to Bogdan and Taylor (1975) “The term methodology in a broad sense refers to the
process, principles, and procedures by which we approach problem and seek answers”.

 According to Adams and Schvaneveldt , “Methodology is the application of scientific

procedures towards acquiring answers to a wide variety of questions (p16)”|
 
 According to Nachmias and Nachmias (1999), ÓA Scientific methodology is a system of
explicit rules and procedures. It provides the foundations for conducting research and
evaluating claims for knowledge. This system is neither static nor in fallible ( p12) ”.
 
 According to Bernard S. Phillips, (1975) "The scientific method is a triple synthesis: of
concepts or ideas with concepts or ideas, of ideas with experience, and of experience with
experience”.

 In essence, how one conducts research is called method -- method is a “science of finding out”.
Defining the problem

The first step in any research project is to state

as clearly as possible what you hope to
investigate—that is, define the problem.

Early on, any social science researcher must

develop an operational definition of each
concept being studied. An operational
definition is an explanation of an abstract
concept that is specific enough to allow a
researcher to assess the concept.
Reviewing the Literature

By conducting a review of the literature

—relevant scholarly studies and
information—researchers refine the
problem under study, clarify possible
techniques to be used in collecting data,
and eliminate or reduce avoidable
mistakes.
 Formulating the Hypothesis
After reviewing earlier research and drawing on the
contributions of sociological theorists, the researchers
may then formulate the hypothesis.

A hypothesis is a speculative statement about the

relationship between two or more factors known as
variables.

Variable as a measurable trait or characteristic that is

subject to change under different conditions. Income,
religion, occupation, and gender can all serve as
variables in a study
 Collecting and Analyzing Data
How do you test a hypothesis to determine
if it is supported or refuted? You need to
collect information, using one of the
research designs described later in the
chapter. The research design guides the
researcher in collecting and analyzing data.

Selecting Sample: selection from a larger

population that is statistically representative
of that population
Developing the Conclusion
Scientificstudies, including those
conducted by sociologists, do not aim to
answer all the questions that can be raised
about a particular subject. Therefore, the
conclusion of a research study represents
both an end and a beginning. Although it
terminates a specific phase

Supporting Hypothesis
Major Research Designs
An important aspect of sociological research is
deciding how to collect the data. A research
design is a detailed plan or method for obtaining
data scientifically. Selection of a research design is
often based on the theories and hypotheses the
researcher starts with (Merton 1948). The choice
requires creativity and ingenuity, because it
directly influences both the cost of the project and
the amount of time needed to collect the data.
Research designs that sociologists regularly use to
generate data include surveys, ethnography,
experiments, and existing sources.
Types of Research
Quantitative
◦ Surveys
Qualitative
◦ Ethnography
Experimental
◦ Combination of two sites
 One is control group
 One is experimental group – where the experiment
undergoes.
Use of Existing Sources
◦ Secondary Analysis
 Content Analyais
Types of Research
Use of Existing Sources
◦ Secondary Analysis
 Content Analysis
Mixed Methods
◦ Both quantitative and qualitative - in order to
gain a more comprehensive understanding and
explanation of the subject being studied. The
findings from separate quantitative and
qualitative studies can also be combined.
Documentary Research
Survey
Ethnography
 Ethnography is the distinctive strategy of Anthropology:
◦ What is Ethnography?
 Writing about another culture following participant observation.
 Ethnography is the written description and analysis of the
culture of a group of people based on fieldwork (Nanda, 2007).

 Fieldwork is the firsthand, intensive, systematic exploration of a

culture. It involves living with a group of people and
participating in and observing their behaviour (Nanda, 2007).

 Observation, participation, and interviewing are all necessary

elements of good fieldwork.
‘Going Native’ as the ultimate form of ethnography
The famous Anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowsky, during the participant
observation with Trobriand Islanders
 Methods of Data Collection
In-depth Interview/ unstructured interview:
◦ Informal interview following a short checklist/ guideline.
◦ Interview plan is in your mind
◦ Mainly open ended
◦ If you have a lot of time
◦ In case of long-term fieldwork
Structured Interview:
◦ Questionnaire Survey
◦ Mainly closed ended
Semi-structured Interview
◦ Use of interview guide: written list of topics that need to be covered in a
particular order
Focus Group Discussion: Structured and facilitated group
discussion with people from similar background, experience on a
particular topic of the research.
Designing a research
Step 1: Identify a Research topic
Step 2: Define a Research Problem
Step 3: Review of Existing Literature
Step 4: Formulate a testable Hypothesis
Step 5: Collect and Analyse Data
◦ Identify method of data collection and justify
◦ Selection of research population and site
◦ Finalise the steps of data collection
◦ Go through the ethics of research and discuss with the team
members
◦ Quality assurance and triangulation
◦ Analysing data
Step 6: Writing up a report
 Ethics of Research
Sociologists must abide by certain specific standards in
conducting research, called a code of ethics . The
professional society of the discipline, the American
Sociological Association (ASA), first published the society’s
Code of Ethics in 1971 and revised it most recently in 1997. It
puts forth the following basic principles:

◦ 1. Maintain objectivity and integrity in research.

◦ 2. Respect the subject’s right to privacy and dignity.
◦ 3. Protect subjects from personal harm.
◦ 4. Preserve confidentiality.
◦ 5. Seek informed consent when data are collected from research
◦ participants or when behavior occurs in a private context.
◦ 6. Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance.
◦ 7. Disclose all sources of financial support (American Sociological
Association 1999).