Synchronous Generators

Outline
• Introduction
• Construction
• Types
• Working Principle
Introduction
• The machine which produces 3-phase power from
mechanical power is called an alternator or synchronous
generator.
• Alternators are the primary source of all the electrical energy
we consume.
• These machines are the largest energy converters found in the
world. They convert mechanical energy into AC electrical
energy.
Alternator
• An alternator operates on the same fundamental principle of
electromagnetic induction as a DC generator.
• Like a DC generator, an alternator also has an armature winding and a
field winding.
But there is one important difference between the two.
• In a DC generator, the armature winding is placed on the rotor
• The field poles are placed on the stationary part of the machine.
Comparison of Machines

DC Machine Induction Machine Synchronous Machine

Advantages of stationary armature
The field winding of an alternator is placed on the rotor and is
connected to DC supply through two slip rings. The 3-phase armature
winding is placed on the stator.
• It is easier to insulate stationary winding for high voltages for which
the alternators are usually designed.
• The stationary 3-phase armature can be directly connected to load
without going through large, unreliable slip rings and brushes.
• Only two slip rings are required for DC supply to the field winding on
the rotor
• Due to simple and robust construction of the rotor, higher speed of
rotating DC field is possible.
Construction of Alternator
Stator
• It is the stationary part of the machine and is built up of sheet-steel
laminations having slots on its inner periphery.
• A 3-phase winding is placed in these slots and serves as the armature
winding of the alternator.
• The armature winding is always connected in star and the neutral is
connected to ground.
Construction of Alternator
Rotor
• The rotor carries a field winding which is supplied with direct current
through two slip rings by a separate DC source. This DC source
(called exciter) is generally a small d.c. shunt or compound generator
mounted on the shaft of the alternator.
• Rotor construction is of two types, namely;
(i) Salient (or projecting) pole type
(ii) Non-salient (or cylindrical) pole type
Salient pole type
• In this type, salient or projecting poles are mounted on a large circular
steel frame which is fixed to the shaft of the alternator as shown in
Fig.
• The individual field pole windings
are connected in series in such a
way that when the field winding
is energized by the DC exciter,
adjacent poles have opposite
polarities.
Salient pole type
• Low and medium-speed alternators (120-400 r.p.m.) such as those
driven by diesel engines or water turbines have salient pole type rotors
due to the following reasons:
(a) The salient field poles would cause .an excessive windage loss if driven at
high speed and would tend to produce noise.
(b) Salient-pole construction cannot be made strong enough to withstand the
mechanical stresses to which they may be subjected at higher speeds.
• Since a frequency of 50 Hz is required, we must use a large number of
poles on the rotor of slow-speed alternators. Low-speed rotors always
possess a large type rotors have large diameters and short axial
lengths.
Non-salient pole type
• In this type, the rotor is made of smooth solid forged-steel radial
cylinder having a number of slots along the outer periphery.
• The field windings are embedded in these slots and are connected in
series to the slip rings through
which they are energized by
the DC exciter. The regions forming
the poles are usually left unslotted
as shown in Fig. It is clear that the
poles formed are non-salient
Non-salient pole type
• High-speed alternators (1500 or 3000 r.p.m.) are driven by steam
turbines and use non-salient type rotors due to the following reasons:
(a) This type of construction has mechanical robustness and gives
noiseless operation at high speeds.
(b) (b) The flux distribution around the periphery is nearly a sine
wave and hence a better EMF waveform is obtained than in the
case of salient-pole type.
Non-salient pole type
• Since steam turbines run at high speed and a frequency of 50 Hz is
required, we need a small number of poles on the rotor of high-speed
alternators (also called turboalternators).
• We can use not less than 2 poles and this fixes the highest possible
speed. For a frequency of 50 Hz, it is 3000 r.p.m.
• The next lower speed is 1500 r.p.m. for a 4-pole machine.
Consequently, turboalternators possess 2 or 4 poles and have small
diameters and very long axial lengths.
 Construction
Two types:
1. Salient pole or Projecting 2. Cylindrical rotor or Round
pole type syn m/c rotor or Non-salient type
syn m/c
D-axis D-axis
Xd=d-axis syn Uniform
air gap
reactance
Xd = Xq

Q-axis Q-axis
Xq=q-axis
syn
reactance
Salient pole
Non-uniform air gap, Xd ≠ Xq Cylindrical rotor
 Construction
1. Salient pole syn m/c 2. Cylindrical rotor syn m/c
The Differences are:
1.

Salient pole Cylindrical rotor

 Construction
2. Non-uniform air gap Uniform air gap

3. Xd d-axis syn reactance X =X =X

d q s
≠ Xq q-axis syn reactance

4. Poles > 4 Poles ≤ 4

5. Used in LOW speed m/c HIGH speed machine

6. Small core length, large Long length, small diameter

diameter to accommodate to limit large centrifugal
large no of poles. forces due to high speed.
7. Hydro-generator in
Turbo-generator in
which rotor is driven
which rotor is driven by
by Hydro-Turbine is
Steam-Turbine.
designed with this pole.
8. Under fault, there are Under fault, there are less
more chances of chances of deformation of
deformation of rotor due rotor due to uniform air gap.
to non-uniform air gap.

9. Output waveform is not Output waveform is more

sinusoidal nearer to sine wave.
(more harmonics)
Alternator Operation
• The rotor winding is energized from the DC exciter and alternate N
and S poles are developed on the rotor.
• When the rotor is rotated in anti-clockwise direction by a prime
mover, the stator or armature conductors are cut by the magnetic flux
of rotor poles.
• Consequently, EMF is induced in the armature conductors due to
electromagnetic induction.
• The induced e.m.f. is alternating since N and S poles of rotor
alternately pass the armature conductors.
Alternator Operation
• The direction of induced EMF can be found by Fleming’s right hand
rule and frequency is given by;
f=NP/120
where N = speed of rotor in r.p.m.
P = number of rotor poles
• The magnitude of the voltage induced in each phase depends upon the
rotor flux, the number and position of the conductors in the phase and
the speed of the rotor.
Alternator Operation
• When the rotor is rotated, a 3-phase voltage is induced in the armature
winding. The magnitude of induced EMF depends upon the speed of
rotation and the DC exciting current. The magnitude of EMF in each
phase of the armature winding is the same. However, they differ in
phase by 120° electrical as show in the phasor diagram
Usually field wdg is on rotor and armature wdg on stator

Armature wdg
R1

Y2 B2 Brushes

Shaft

B1 Y1 2 Slip rings
Field wdg
R2
Usually field wdg is on rotor and armature wdg on stator

Armature wdg + – DC ON
R1

Y2 B2 Brushes

Shaft

B1 Y1 2 Slip rings
Field wdg
R2 Flux is set up
If rotor is rotated by Prime Mover
or by Motor or by Turbine
Usually field wdg is on rotor and armature wdg on stator
Generator Armature wdg
R1 + – DC ON

Y2 B2 Brushes
Spark
Shaft

B1 Y1 2 Slip rings
Field wdg
R2
Arm Voltages
t
If speed is zero, no arm voltage is induced.
 If DC supply is turned OFF

R1 + – DC ON

Y2 B2 Brushes

Shaft

B1 Y1 2 Slip rings
R2
 If DC supply is turned OFF

R1

Y2 B2 Brushes

Shaft

B1 Y1 2 Slip rings
R2
With no flux, if rotor is rotated, no arm voltage is
induced.
Now consider armature wdg is on rotor and field wdg
on stator

R1 Armature
Y2 B2 wdg
B1 Y1
R2

Field wdg
 DC supply is
given to
R1 field wdg
Y2 B2
B1 Y1 Flux is
R2 set up

Rotate the arm

By prime mover
 Armature
Voltage t

Generator

DC supply is
given to
R1 field wdg
Y2 B2
B1 Y1 Flux is
R2 set up

Rotate the arm

By prime mover
 Armature
Voltage t

Generator

DC supply is
given to
R1 field wdg
Y2 B2
B1 Y1 Flux is
R2 set up

Rotate the arm

by prime mover
Armature wdg

RYBN

Shaft

4 Slip rings

Field wdg
Armature wdg
+ – DC supply Given to
Field
RYBN

Shaft

4 Slip rings

Field wdg
 Now rotate the rotor
Armature wdg
+ – DC supply Given to
Field
RYBN

Shaft

4 Slip rings

Field wdg
 Now rotate the rotor
Armature wdg
+ – DC supply Given to
Field
RYBN

Shaft

4 Slip rings

Field wdg
Arm Voltages
t
 Armature wdg
+ – DC supply Given to
Field
RYBN

Shaft

4 Slip rings

Field wdg
Arm Voltages
t
No speed, arm voltage is zero.
The advantages of providing the field winding on rotor
and armature winding on stator:
1. Field on rotor requires TWO slip rings. Armature on
rotor requires FOUR slip rings. Less slip ring losses.
2. It is economical. For example:
Rating of armature=200MVA, 11kV
200 103
Line current   10,500 A
3  11
For this current, slip rings should be larger in size and
properly insulated from the shaft for 11kV.
Rating of field=1MW, 500V
1000
Field current   2000 A
0.5
 Slip rings should be smaller in size and are insulated
for 500V only.
3. Stationary armature can be INSULATED satisfactory
for higher voltages, ie upto 33kV.
4. Stationary armature can be COOLED more efficiently
upto 1000MW or above.
5. Low power field wdg gives LIGHTER rotor, so LOW
torque is required to rotate the rotor .
6. Higher speed and more output are possible for a
given dimensions.
 Types of Armature winding
• Single Layer and Double layer
• Concentrated and Distributed
Reasons for using distributed winding
Armature winding in practical generators is uniformly distributed in
many slots for the following reasons —
• It is difficult to put all the conductors of a phase winding in one or
two slots.
• Distributed winding reduces harmonics in the generated voltage
and makes the waveform closer to sinusoidal shape.
• Distributed winding helps in more uniform heat distribution and
cooling and thus helps in preventing insulation failure due to
excessive heat in the winding.
 Armature Winding Coils Overhang

Coil Span

A1 A2 A1 A2

R S Ananda Murthy
Coil

Side

P Q P Q
Full Pitched Coil Short Pitched Coil

In practical generators, short pitched coils are used to minimize

the length of overhangs and also to reduce harmonics in the
generated voltage.

Synchronous Generators
 Pitch Factor (Kp) of Armature Winding
Due to short pitched coil, the magnitude of E.M.F. induced e will be slightly
reduced when compared to a full pitched coil. For a short pitched coil, the pitch
factor is defined as

Voltage generated in a short pitched coil (1)

Kp = Voltage generated in a full pitched coil
R S Ananda Murthy

Formula for Kp is
β (2)
Kp = cos 2
where β is the angle in electrical degrees by which the coil is
short pitched as shown in the previous slide. Typically Kp is
about 0.9 in a practical generator.

Synchronous Generators
 Distribution Factor (Kd ) of Armature Winding
For a distributed winding, the distribution factor, Kd is defined as

Voltage induced in a distributed winding (3)

Kd = Voltage induced in a concentrated winding

Kd is given by
sin(mα/2) (4)
R S Ananda Murthy Kd = m sin(α/2)

where α is known as slot angle and m are given by

180 and S
α = S/P m=
3P
where S is total number of slots, P is number of poles. Typically
Kd is about 0.9 for a practical generator.

Synchronous Generators
 Frequency of Generated E.M.F.
When a conductor moves past a pair of poles, one cycle of
sinusoidal voltage is completed. If P = total number of poles in
the machine, then,

P
Number of cycles per revolution = (5) 2
R S Ananda Murthy

If N = R.P.M. of the motor, then, the rotor makes N/60 R.P.S.

Hence, the frequency of the induced E.M.F. is given by

P N PN
f= × = Hz (6)
2 60 120

Synchronous Generators
Equation for Induced E.M.F. in an Alternator
If P = number of poles in the machine, and φ = flux per pole, magnetic flux
cut by a conductor in one revolution of the rotor = P. If N is the R.P.M., then,
time taken by the rotor to make one revolution = 60/N seconds. Therefore,

R S Ananda Murthy

Synchronous Generators
 Equation for Induced E.M.F. in an Alternator
If T = total number of turns connected in series per phase, and since each turn
will have two conductors, we have Z = Total number of conductors in series per
phase = 2T . So,
PΦN ·2T
Average E.M.F. induced per phase = |E | = av
60

The air gap flux in the generator will have more or less sinusoidal
R S Ananda Murthy

distribution. Then, the induced E.M.F. in each phase will also be

sinusoidal. For a sinusoidal waveform we have
Form Factor = |Eph| = 1.11
|Eav |
where Eph = R.M.S. value of the induced voltage per phase.
ynchronous Generators
Equation for Induced E.M.F. in an
Alternator
Therefore, the R.M.S. voltage induced per phase is

PΦN 2.22PΦNT
|Eph| = 1.11 × × 2T = (7)
60 60
But the frequency of the induced E.M.F. is given by
R S Ananda Murthy
PN
PN =⇒ 2f =
f = 120 60
Substituting this in Eq. (7) we get

|Eph| = 4.44ΦfT Volts

Equation for Induced E.M.F. in an Alternator
In a practical machine the armature winding is evenly
distributed in the slots and short pitched coils are used. Due to
this, the induced E.M.F. is slightly reduced by a factor Kw where
Kw = Kp Kd is known as the winding factor. So, the induced
E.M.F. in an actual machine is given by
R S Ananda Murthy |Eph| = 4.44ΦfTKw Volts (8)

Since the three coils in the armature winding of a practical

generator are always star connected, the line voltage at the
terminals of the synchronous generator is given by

√ (9)
|E | = 3 × |Eph|

Synchronous Generators
Synchronous Motor
Starting: If 3-phase supply is given to armature, a rotating
magnetic field is produced.
The speed of this rotating field is synchronous
R speed, Ns=120f/P.
δ
The stator produces a two pole field,
N which is rotating in clockwise direction.
If field winding is excited, poles are
created on rotor as shown.
+
-

B S Y
Synchronous Motor
Starting: If 3-phase supply is given to armature, a rotating
magnetic field is produced.
The speed of this rotating field is synchronous
R speed, Ns=120f/P.
δ
The stator produces a two pole field,
N which is rotating in clockwise direction.
If field winding is excited, poles are
N created on rotor as shown.
+
The angle between stator and rotor field
- axes is δ, torque angle
S
T=(P/ω)
B S Y The torque is proportional to sinδ.
Synchronous Motor
Starting: The torque varies sinusoidally with time, it
reverses during each half cycle.
Te
R
δ
N
N
+
Therefore, the average torque over
- a complete cycle is ZERO.
S
Hence, syn motor, on its own, has
B S Y NO NET starting torque.
Another way: Consider the instant shown in Fig.
N pole of stator repels N pole of rotor, producing anticlockwise
torque.
After half cycle, i. e. after 10 msec =1/2f, for 50Hz supply, stator
poles occupy new positions as shown in Fig.
R R

N N
S
N
+ N +
-
Te S -
S
B S Y B S
N Y
Another way: S pole of stator attracts N pole of rotor,
producing clockwise torque.
Thus rotor rotates anticlockwise at one instant and after 10msec
rotor rotates clockwise direction.
Due to inertia, rotor does not move in one direction and rotor
R remains standstill.Thus net starting torque is zero.
R
Hence, synchronous motor is not self starting

N S
N + N +
Te - Te -
S S
B S Y B N Y
 Three phase supply is given to stator.
Synchronously rotating magnetic field is produced.
Now rotate the rotor in the same direction with
same speed or speed near to syn speed.
Then field wdg is excited.

B S Y
 Three phase supply is given to stator.
Synchronously rotating magnetic field is produced.
Now rotate the rotor in the same direction with
same speed or speed near to syn speed.
Then field wdg is excited.
There is magnetic locking between stator and
R rotor magnetic field
With relative speed zero, stator N pole is
N locked with rotor S pole and
S stator S pole is locked with rotor N pole.
Rotor will now experience a torque.
If prime mover of rotor is cut off,
N
rotor will continue to rotate in the
B S Y same direction, with same syn speed.
 Thus rotor always rotates at synchronous
speed.
Hence name of this motor is synchronous
motor.

R If the load is applied on the rotor, rotor lags

behind the stator field by some angle.

N
S

N
B S Y
 Thus rotor always rotates at synchronous
speed.
Hence name of this motor is synchronous
motor.

R If the load is applied on the rotor, rotor lags

behind the stator field by some angle.

N This angle is called as torque angle / load

angle or power angle δ.
S The starting methods are
1. Auxiliary motor starting
2. Starting by Damper Winding
N (SCIM)
B S Y 3. SRIM starting with High Torque
 1. Auxiliary motor starting
The auxiliary motor may be ac motor or dc motor.
It is mechanically coupled with synchronous motor.
R

AC or DC
DC supply
Motor

B Y
The armature wdg of synchronous motor is energized from
3-phase supply.
AC or DC motor is started and run near to synchronous speed
Now DC supply is given to field wdg of synchronous motor.
Field poles get locked with armature poles.
Synchronous motor starts running as a motor at syn speed.
The auxiliary motor can now disconnected from the supply or
decoupled from mechanical coupling.

2. Starting by damper winding

(Squirrel cage Induction motor starting)
 2. Starting by damper winding
(Squirrel cage Induction motor starting)

In order to make the motor self starting, the damper or

amortisseur wdg is embedded in slots in the rotor pole faces.
This wdg is short –circuited at both ends by end rings.
This damper winding is similar to squirrel cage wdg of 3-ph
induction motor.

Damper Bars Pole

Damper End Ring (skewed)
Bars
 2. Starting by damper winding
(Squirrel cage Induction motor starting)

In this case, the syn motor can be started by star-delta starting,

reactor starting or auto-transformer starting.
When 3-phase supply is given to armature, a rotating magnetic
field is established.
Damper wdg develop induction motor torque.
The rotor is accelerated and speed is near to synchronous speed.
Before starting the field wdg can be short-circuited with or without
some resistance
With some resistance, starting torque will be more.

Now the field wdg is open circuited and is energized from a DC

source, stator and rotor poles will lock together.
Then rotor will run at synchronous speed.
 3. Slip Ring Induction Motor starting
with High Starting Torque
(Synchronous – Induction Motor)
First it is operated as SRIM and then synchronous motor,
therefore, syn motor may be called as Syn-duction motor.

+
R
¯

B Y
For load requiring high starting torques, this type of starting
method is used.

Rotor is similar to SRIM or wound rotor induction motor.

At the time of starting high resistance is inserted in rotor circuit to

develop high starting torque.
As speed increase, this resistance is gradually reduced to zero .

The rotor short circuit is removed and rotor wdg is switched over
to DC supply.
Thus rotor poles are created and are attracted by stator poles
and synchronism is achieved.
Excitation Systems
Field winding
Always absorbs or imports dc power
whether Motor or Generator operation.
Field winding is connected to dc source.
The excitation systems are:
1. DC exciter
 1. DC Exciter
Field of Pilot Exciter Alternator Field
Field of main Exciter

AlternatorOutput
Shaft

Stator Rotor Stator Rotor

Rotor

Pilot Exciter Main Exciter 3-Phase Alternator

Alternator field on rotor is connected to armature of main exciter

on rotor through slip rings and brushes.
 1. DC Exciter
An old conventional method of exciting field winding.
Three machines
1. Pilot exciter: DC shunt generator feeding field wdg of main
exciter
2. Main exciter: Separately Excited DC generator feeding field
wdg of main alternator.
3. Main 3-phase alternator:
They are mechanically coupled and driven by same shaft.
 2. Static Excitation

Battery
Bank
Brushes

Slip rings

Thyrister
Rectifier TR
 2. Static Excitation
No rotating type of exciter, no friction.
Initially field winding is excited by battery bank through slip rings
and brushes.
After building up of voltage, the output voltage is fed back to field
through transformer and rectifier.
Then battery bank is disconnected.
Use of reliable and high power SCR ( silicon controlled rectifier)
gives fast response.
If other generators are in operation, then there is no need of
battery bank for new generator.
 3. Brushless Excitation
Permanent Magnet
Solid shaft Hollow shaft

Pilot Exciter Main Exciter

PM on rotor Arm on rotor Silicon diode

Arm on Field on rectifier
stator stator on SHAFT

DC
AC
Thyrister
Rectifier
TR
AC
 3. Brushless Excitation
This method consists of:

1. Pilot exciter: 3-phase generator with permanent magnet field

or poles on rotor and 3-phase armature wdg on stator.
2. Main exciter: 3-phase generator with field on stator and
armature on rotor.

3. Main 3-phase alternator:

They are mechanically coupled and driven by same shaft.

4. Rectifiers: 1. Thyrister controlled bridge.

2. Silicon diode bridge, mounted on shaft.
 3. Brushless Excitation
The output of pilot exciter is fed to thyrister controlled rectifier.

After rectification, dc output is given to stationary field winding

of main exciter
3-phase output of main exciter is fed through hollow shaft to
diode rectifier which is mounted on shaft.
The dc output of diode rectifier is given to the main alternator
field without brushes and slip rings.
Since this scheme does not require any sliding contact and
brushes, this is called as brushless excitation.
For large 500MW and above, turbo-generator, dc current is up
to 10kA or above, this scheme is used.