INTRODUCTION TO

RESEARCH
Issues...
• Why are we interested in research?
• What is research?
• Key concepts and issues
Why must we understand
research?
• help make informed decisions
• need to produce research in career
• evaluating research in the media
• assist in classes
Why is research a valued source of
knowledge?
• Common ways of knowing…
• personal experience/intuition
• experts/traditions/authority
• scientific method
What is Science, the Scientific Method, and
Research?
• Science…
• a body of established knowledge
• the observation, identification, investigation, and theoretical
explanation of natural phenomenon

usually the ultimate goal is theory

generation and verification
What is Science, the Scientific Method, and
Research?
• Theory…
• a set of inter-related constructs and propositions that specify
relations among variables to explain and predict phenomena
• should be simple, consistent with observed relationships, tentative
and verifiable
What is Science, the Scientific Method, and
Research?
• Scientific Method…
• involves the principles and processes regarded as characteristic of
or necessary for scientific investigation
• process or approach to generating valid and trustworthy knowledge
What is Science, the Scientific Method, and
Research?
• Research…
• the application of the scientific method
• a systematic process of collecting and logically analyzing
information (data)
• Research Methods (Methodology)…
• the ways one collects and analyzes data
• methods developed for acquiring trustworthy knowledge via reliable
and valid procedures
What Research Is Not
• Research isn’t information gathering:
• Gathering information from resources such books or
magazines isn’t research.
• No contribution to new knowledge.

• Research isn’t the transportation of facts:

• Merely transporting facts from one resource to another
doesn’t constitute research.
• No contribution to new knowledge although this might
make existing knowledge more accessible.
What Research Is

• Research is:

“…the systematic process of collecting and

analyzing information (data) in order to increase
our understanding of the phenomenon about
which we are concerned or interested.”
Research Characteristics
1. Originates with a question or problem.
2. Requires clear articulation of a goal.
3. Follows a specific plan or procedure.
4. Often divides main problem into subproblems.
5. Guided by specific problem, question, or hypothesis.
6. Accepts certain critical assumptions.
7. Requires collection and interpretation of data.
8. Cyclical (helical) in nature.
Research Projects
• Research begins with a problem.
• This problem need not be Earth-shaking.

• Identifying this problem can actually be the

hardest part of research.
• In general, good research projects should:
• Address an important question.
• Advance knowledge.
Research Project Pitfalls
• The following kinds of projects usually don’t make
for good research:
• Self-enlightenment.
• Comparing data sets.
• Correlating data sets.
• Problems with yes / no answers.
High-Quality Research
(1 of 2)
• Good research requires:
• The scope and limitations of the work to be clearly
defined.
• The process to be clearly explained so that it can be
reproduced and verified by other researchers.
• A thoroughly planned design that is as objective as
possible.
High-Quality Research
(2 of 2)
• Good research requires:
• Highly ethical standards be applied.

• All limitations be documented.

• Data be adequately analyzed and explained.

• All findings be presented unambiguously and all

conclusions be justified by sufficient evidence.
 16

Nature of Research
• Systematic – plan, identify, design, collect data, evaluate
• Logical – examine procedures to evaluate conclusions
• Empirical – decisions are based on data (observation)
• Reductive – general relationships are established from
data
• Replicable – actions are recorded
 17

Scientific Method of Problem

Solving
• Step 1: develop the problem (define and delimit it)
• identify independent and dependent variables
• Step 2: formulate the hypotheses
• the anticipated outcome
• Step 3: gather data
• maximize internal and external validity
• Step 4(5): analyze and interpret results
Types of Research
• Trochim’s Classifications…
• descriptive
• e.g., percentage of regular exercisers
• relational
• e.g., link between age and exercise
• causal
• e.g., effect of behavior change intervention on exercise participation
Determinants of college students' health-promoting lifestyles.

Larouche R.

Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.

This descriptive study of 151 university students in Boston, Massachusetts, was

undertaken to determine the relationships of their perceived health status, sex,
grade point average, and health and nonhealth majors to their health-promoting
lifestyles, using the Health Promoting Lifestyle Profile (HPLP) II, based on Pender's
model. Students' perceived health status was significantly predictive of total HPLP
II, exercise, stress management, and spiritual growth. College women practiced
significantly better nutrition, interpersonal relationships, health responsibility, and
total HPLP II than men. The whole sample scored lower in stress management than
any previous group studied. Male students, those reporting poor health, and all
students are targeted for intervention and research in their deficient areas.
Guidelines for nursing practice are derived from the HPLP II questionnaire. These
clinically significant findings may guide nurse practitioners to intervene in the health
awareness and practices of college students.
Weight management behaviors of African American female college students.

July F, Hawthorne D, Elliot J, Robinson W.

Department of Nursing, Fayetteville State University, USA.

The prevalence of overweight and obesity among African American women is a

problem of significance, and one, which demands investigation through scientific
research. The purpose of this study was to determine the weight management;
behaviors among African American female college students. A descriptive
correlational study was conducted to answer this question. The results revealed that
at least fifty percent (50%) of these students exhibited behavior that could lead to
obesity.
MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1996 Sep 6;45(35):760-5. Related Articles, Links

School-based HIV-prevention education--United States, 1994.

[No authors listed]

Many adolescents in the United States engage in behaviors that increase their risk for human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Because 95% of all
youth aged 5-17 years are enrolled in school, school health programs can be an efficient method to help
prevent these behaviors. Previous studies have examined selected characteristics of HIV education in the
United States; however, none provide a comprehensive assessment of HIV education policies and programs
nationwide. In 1994, CDC conducted the School Health Policies and Programs Study (SHPPS), which
assessed five components of the school health program: health education, physical education, health services,
food service, and health policies. To provide a comprehensive assessment of HIV-prevention education
programs nationwide in 1994, CDC analyzed data from the health education component of the study. This
report summarizes the findings, which indicate that although HIV-prevention education has been widely
implemented in U.S. schools, improvement in these programs is needed.
J Appl Physiol. 2000 Sep;89(3):1179-88.
Reduced strength after passive stretch of the human plantarflexors.

Fowles JR, Sale DG, MacDougall JD.

Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S 4K1.

The purpose of this study was to assess strength performance after an acute bout of maximally
tolerable passive stretch (PS(max)) in human subjects. Ten young adults (6 men and 4 women)
underwent 30 min of cyclical PS(max) (13 stretches of 135 s each over 33 min) and a similar control
period (Con) of no stretch of the ankle plantarflexors. Measures of isometric strength (maximal
voluntary contraction), with twitch interpolation and electromyography, and twitch characteristics
were assessed before (Pre), immediately after (Post), and at 5, 15, 30, 45, and 60 min after
PS(max) or Con. Compared with Pre, maximal voluntary contraction was decreased at Post (28%)
and at 5 (21%), 15 (13%), 30 (12%), 45 (10%), and 60 (9%) min after PS(max) (P < 0.05). Motor
unit activation and electromyogram were significantly depressed after PS(max) but had recovered
by 15 min. An additional testing trial confirmed that the torque-joint angle relation may have been
temporarily altered, but at Post only. These data indicate that prolonged stretching of a single
muscle decreases voluntary strength for up to 1 h after the stretch as a result of impaired activation
and contractile force in the early phase of deficit and by impaired contractile force throughout the
entire period of deficit.
Am J Epidemiol. 1988 May;127(5):933-41. Related Articles, Links

Relation of cardiovascular fitness and physical activity to cardiovascular

disease risk factors in children and adults.

Sallis JF, Patterson TL, Buono MJ, Nader PR.

Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla.

The associations of physical activity and cardiovascular fitness with cardiovascular disease risk factors were
studied in 88 male adults, 180 female adults, 148 male children, and 142 female children. Subjects were
families recruited from elementary schools in San Diego, California. Fitness (VO2 max) was measured by a
submaximal cycle ergometer test. Physical activity was assessed by seven-day recall interview, yielding
caloric expenditure, and by a simple self-rating of activity level. Risk factors included blood pressure, high
density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, the ratio of high density lipoproteins to low density lipoproteins (LDL),
and body mass index. For all subgroups, fitness was strongly and significantly correlated with virtually all risk
factors. After adjustment for body mass index, most fitness-risk factor associations were no longer significant.
Seven-day caloric expenditure was significantly correlated with HDL/LDL only in female adults and children.
The activity rating was significantly correlated with body mass index in all subgroups and with HDL/LDL in
female adults and male adults. The simple activity rating tended to be correlated with fitness. The pattern of
association was similar for adults and children.
J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2003 Mar;43(1):21-7. Related Articles, Links

Effects of running, static stretching and practice jumps on explosive force production
and jumping performance.
Young WB, Behm DG.
School of Human Movement and Sport Sciences, University of Ballarat, Ballarat, Victoria, Australia. w.young@ballarat.edu.au

AIM: The interaction between running, stretching and practice jumps during warm-up for jumping tests has
not been investigated. The purpose of the present study was to compare the effects of running, static
stretching of the leg extensors and practice jumps on explosive force production and jumping performance.
METHODS: Sixteen volunteers (13 male and 3 female) participated in five different warm-ups in a
randomised order prior to the performance of two jumping tests. The warm-ups were control, 4 min run, static
stretch, run + stretch, and run + stretch + practice jumps. After a 2 min rest, a concentric jump and a drop
jump were performed, which yielded 6 variables expressing fast force production and jumping performance of
the leg extensor muscles (concentric jump height, peak force, rate of force developed, drop jump height,
contact time and height/time). RESULTS: Generally the stretching warm-up produced the lowest values and
the run or run + stretch + jumps warm-ups produced the highest values of explosive force production. There
were no significant differences (p<0.05) between the control and run + stretch warm-ups, whereas the run
yielded significantly better scores than the run + stretch warm-up for drop jump height (3.2%), concentric
jump height (3.4%) and peak concentric force (2.7%) and rate of force developed (15.4%). CONCLUSION:
The results indicated that submaximum running and practice jumps had a positive effect whereas static
stretching had a negative influence on explosive force and jumping performance. It was suggested that an
alternative for static stretching should be considered in warm-ups prior to power activities.
J Strength Cond Res. 2002 Aug;16(3):399-408.

Power output, mechanomyographic, and electromyographic responses to maximal,

concentric, isokinetic muscle actions in men and women.
Cramer JT, Housh TJ, Weir JP, Johnson GO, Ebersole KT, Perry SR, Bull AJ.
Department of Health and Human Performance, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln 68588, USA. jcramer@unlserve.unl.edu

The purpose of this study was to examine the responses of peak torque (PT), mean power output (MP),
mechanomyographic (MMG) and electromyographic (EMG) amplitudes, and mean power frequencies
(MPFs) of the vastus lateralis (VL), rectus femoris (RF), and vastus medialis (VM) in men and women
during dynamic muscle actions. Twelve women (mean +/- SD age = 22 +/- 3 years) and 11 men (22 +/- 3
years) performed maximal, concentric, isokinetic leg extensions at velocities of 60, 120, 180, 240, and 300
degrees x s(-1) on a Cybex 6000 dynamometer. Piezoelectric MMG-recording sensors and bipolar surface
EMG electrodes were placed over the VL, RF, and VM muscles. No sex-related differences were found
among the velocity-related patterns for PT, MP, MMG amplitude, MMG MPF, or EMG MPF. There were,
however, sex-related differences in the patterns of EMG amplitude across velocity. The results indicated
similar velocity-related patterns of increase of MP and MMG amplitude for all 3 muscles and of EMG
amplitude for the VL and VM in the women. Velocity-related decreases (p <or = 0.05) were found for PT
and EMG MPF for the VL. EMG amplitude for all muscles in the men and for the RF in the women as well
as EMG MPF for the RF and VM remained unchanged (p > 0.05) across velocity. MMG MPF increased (p <
or = 0.05) only between 240 and 300 degrees x s(-1). Overall, these findings suggested that there were
sex- and muscle-specific, velocity-related differences in the associations among motor unit activation
strategies (EMG amplitude and MPF) and the mechanical aspects of muscular activity (MMG amplitude and
MPF). With additional examination and validation, however, MMG may prove useful to practitioners for
monitoring training-induced changes in muscle power output.
Types of Research
• Other Common Classifications…
• basic vs. applied vs. evaluation
• experimental vs. non-experimental
• analytical vs. descriptive vs. experimental vs. qualitative
 Basic

Applied
 28

Basic vs. Applied Research

• Basic research – type of research that may have limited
direct application but in which the researcher has careful
control of the conditions
• Applied research – type of research that has direct value
to practitioners but in which the researcher has limited
control over the research setting
 29

Experimental vs. Non-experimental

Research
• Experimental research
• Treatments are given to subjects
• Cause-and-effect questions
• Non-experimental research
• Treatments are not given to subjects
• Participants are observed as they naturally exist
 30

Types of Nonexperimental
Research
• Causal-comparative
• Survey (poll)
• Sample vs. census
• Case study
• Longitudinal
• Correlational
• Historical
 31

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

• Quantitative – data are gathered such that they can be
quantified and subjected to statistical analyses
• Qualitative – data are gathered such that they can be
analyzed through informed judgment
Key Concepts and Issues
• time in research
• variables
• types of relationships
• hypotheses
• types of data
• fallacies
• structure or research
• deduction and induction
• ethics
• validity
Time in Research

cross-sectional vs. longitudinal

repeated measures time series

Variables
• variable…
• any observation that can take on different values
• attribute…
• a specific value on a variable
Examples

Variable Attribute

age
Examples

Variable Attribute

age 18, 19, 20, etc...

Examples

Variable Attribute

Gender or sex
Examples

Variable Attribute

Gender or sex Male, female

Examples

Variable Attribute

satisfaction
Examples

Variable Attribute
satisfaction 1 = very satisfied

2 = satisfied

3= somewhat satisfied

4 = not satisfied

5 = not satisfied at all

Types of Variables
• independent variable (IV)…
• what you (or nature) manipulates in some way
• dependent variable (DV)…
• what you presume to be influenced by the IV
Examples

IV DV

exercise
participation
The purpose of the study was to…
• test whether the “Fair Play for Sport” curriculum is effective in
promoting moral development in youth
• examine the relationship between age and VO2max.
• test whether there are gender differences the value placed on sport
participation
• determine whether students’ perceptions of the amount of positive,
negative, and informational feedback provided by their teachers is
predictive of their self-esteem and level of achievement

IV, DV?
Types of Relationships
• correlational vs. causal relationships

one variable causes the other

variables perform in a variable
synchronized manner

correlation does not imply causation!

(it’s necessary but not sufficient)
Types of Relationships
• patterns of relationships…
• no relationship
• positive relationship
• negative relationship
• curvilinear relationship
 + +

fitness
fitness

- -
vocabulary
- resting HR + - +
+ +
exercise intensity

performance

- -
- HR + - arousal +
Hypotheses
• hypothesis…
• a specific statement of prediction
• types of hypotheses
• alternative vs. null
• one-tailed vs. two-tailed
Hypotheses
• alternative hypothesis (HA)…
• An effect (that you predict)
• null hypothesis (HO) …
• Null effect
Hypotheses
hypothesis there is a relationship between age
and exercise participation

HA there is a relationship

HO there is not a relationship

this is a two-tailed hypothesis as no

direction is predicted
Hypotheses
hypothesis an incentive program will increase
exercise participation

HA participation will increase

HO participation will not increase or

will decrease

this is a one-tailed hypothesis as a

specific direction is predicted
Types of Data
• quantitative vs. qualitative
Structure of Research
The "hourglass" notion of research
begin with broad questions
narrow down, focus in
operationalize
OBSERVE
analyze data
reach conclusions
generalize back to questions
 Deduction and Induction

Deduction

Induction
Ethics in Research
• balance between protecting participants vs. quest for
knowledge
• Institutional Review Board (IRB) provides one mechanism
• informed consent
• confidentiality and anonymity
• justification of procedures
• right to services
• ..\..\Documents\NORMAH'S DOC\Research\health screen q_MAS
UM.doc
• ..\..\Documents\NORMAH'S DOC\Research\informed consent form
_MASUM.doc
Practice Questions
1. Is the study descriptive, relational, or causal?
2. Is the study cross-sectional or longitudinal?
3. What is (are) the IV (IVs)?
4. What is (are) the DV (DVs)?
5. What are the alternative and null hypotheses?
Practice Questions
A. The purpose of the study was to examine the link
between age and physical fitness levels in terms of
muscular strength and endurance. It was hypothesized
that older and younger adults would demonstrate
significantly different fitness levels.
Practice Questions
B. The purpose of the study was to determine whether
track athletes trained to use mental imagery performed
superior to athletes who did not receive the mental
imagery training. We expected those athletes receiving
the training would perform significantly better than the
untrained athletes.
Practice Questions
C. The study examined the effects of an acute bout of
resistance training on participants’ mood and cognitive
functioning at 1, 6 and 12 hours post exercise. It was
expected that the positive effects on mood and cognitive
function would decline over time.
Practice Questions
D. Participants at the 2009 Chicago Marathon were polled
to determine their satisfaction with the course. The race
officials hoped for positive reactions on the part of the
runners.
Practice Questions
E. A researcher was interested in the role of caffeine in
sports performance. In cooperation with her University’s
baseball team, she randomly assigned players to one of
two conditions: (1) no caffeine or (2) low dose (100mg).
She then used performance on a batting machine as a
test. She speculated that caffeine would positively affect
performance.