Fluid Mechanics and Energy Transport

BIEN 301

Lecture 3
Viscosity, Flow Visualization, Flow Analysis Methods

Juan M. Lopez, E.I.T.

Research Consultant
LeTourneau University

Adjunct Lecturer
Louisiana Tech University
 Viscosity
 Definition (White 1.7)
 Quantitative measure
of a fluid’s resistance
to flow.


t
u
  , In generalized coordinates
g 2
u
   , In cartesian coordinates, flat plane
y

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 Viscosity
 Newtonian vs. Non-Newtonian Fluids
• Newtonian Fluids: Linear Viscosity Equation
 Examples?
• Non-Newtonian Fluids: Non-linear Viscosity Eq.
 Examples?
• Usually this difference is established as constant viscosity vs.
non-constant viscosity. In ALL real fluids, however, viscosity
can never be a true constant and varies with T and P.
 No-Slip Condition
• For real fluids, it is assumed that at the boundaries, zero slip
occurs.
• This is due to jump balance across the interface.
 Temperature Balance
 Momentum Balance

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 Viscosity Effects
 The principal effects of viscosity are divided into two readily
visible areas:
• The boundary layer formation
• Turbulence
 We’ll cover boundary layer in greater depth later on. For now,
we’ll focus on the second effect: generation of turbulence.
 We use a dimensionless number to correlate the effects of
viscosity on a flow regime: the Reynolds Number.

VL VL
Re  
 v
where

v

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 Viscosity Effects
 Dimensionless Numbers
 Many dimensionless numbers in fluid mechanics. We will cover many, many of
them throughout the quarter.
 Reynolds number relates the kinetic energy to the viscosity.
• It helps us identify transition into turbulent region, where the viscosity is too great relative
to the fluid motion, and orderly movement can no longer occur.
 Why dimensionless?
• These are numbers that apply to a flow regime, related to a characteristic dimension.
• Pick the characteristic dimension that better describes the region you are interested in
studying, and apply the equation.

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 Viscosity Effects
 Identify the characteristic dimension for
each flow.

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 Viscosity Effects
 It’s important to think carefully about the characteristic
dimension, however it’s not absolutely a perfect science.
 You can pick an alternative characteristic dimension as long as
you remain consistent as you compare systems

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 Viscosity Effects
 Understanding the meaning of dimensionless numbers
 Even though they are quite an alien concept to people outside of
fluid mechanics, it is important that you grasp these numbers
and learn to obtain a “feel” for what these numbers are telling
you.
 Reynolds number:
• High Values, mean a high kinetic energy relative to its ability to flow.
This should cause instability, therefore, we would expect turbulence.
• Medium values, mean that the kinetic energy is smoothly related to
its ability to flow. This should cause smoothly changing laminar flow.
• Low values, mean a low kinetic energy related to its ability to flow.
This would be a creeping flow where inertial effects are almost, if
not entirely, negligible.

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Viscosity Effects - Example
 A standard example a moving plate with viscous fluid
between the plate and a fixed surface-

Vplate2

Vplate1

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 Viscosity Changes
 Viscosity is dependent on temperature and pressure. For
water, we can ignore the effects of pressure.
 Viscosity changes as a result of temperature are evident
in all real fluids. For gases, we have two representations:
Power Law and Sutherland Law:

 T 
n

   Power Law
   T0 
 3/ 2
 0   T   T  S 
T 0
 0  Sutherland Law
 T S
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 Viscosity Changes
 For Liquids, the approximation is as follows:
2
   T0   T0 
ln   a  b   c 
 0  T  T 

 You can see how this gets much uglier very quickly.
 We really like idealized fluids. It’s unfortunate we don’t
have more of them around.

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 Thermal Effects
 Similar to viscosity, thermal conductivity
changes the way heat transfer occurs
within the fluid.
 Thermal conductivity acts on the
temperature gradient present in the fluid to
obtain a vector form of heat transfer

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 Thermal Effects
 The gradient of a property is the partial
differential of that property with respect to each
of the principal dimensions of the field.
 Note the Del Operator is a vector operator.

 X X X
X  g1 , g 2 , g 3     , In generalized coordinates
g1 g 2 g 3
 T T T
 kT  x, y, z   k  k  k , for the thermal conductivity problem
x y z

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 Surface Tension
 Surface tension arises at the interface
between a fluid and another system.
 This system can be another fluid, a solid, or
nothing at all.
 Surface tension is a much more complicated
subject than it will appear to be here. We will
cover a simplified method of studying surface
tension.

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 Surface Tension
 The coefficient of surface tension, Υ, is a
measure of force per unit length or energy per
unit area present everywhere tangent to the
surface, at the surface.
 Generally, Υ, changes with the same sign as
temperature, reaching zero at a critical point.
 When the surface curves, the tension generates a
pressure difference across the interface.

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 Surface Tension
 The pressure across the surface interface
can be expressed as follows:

p  , Pressure balance across a cylinder
R
2
p  , Pressure balance across a sphere
R
4
p  , Pressure balance across a hollow bubble
R

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 Surface Tension
 Wetting
 When a liquid interacts with a solid surface, there is
an angle at that interaction. The magnitude of this
angle defines whether an item wets the solid or not.
• Water wets clean glass
 Water tends to sheet off clean glass, beads only with
imperfections.
• Water does not wet wax
 Water beading on the wax job of your car.

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 Surface Tension
 Surface tension also causes the capillary effect.
 For a cylindrical capillary tube, the height of the fluid
column that rises due to the surface tension and the
material wetting the capillary can be found to be as
follows:

2 cos 
h
R

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 Cavitation
 Cavitation is a function of vapor pressure. It can
be highly damaging.
 Cavitation is described by a non-dimensional
parameter, the cavitation number.
 Which is a function of Pa, ambient pressure, Pv,
vapor pressure, and V, a characteristic velocity.

p a  pv
Ca 
1
V 2

2
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 Cavitation
 For most fluids, there is a critical point for
Ca below which the fluid will begin to
cavitate.
 The spontaneous generation and rapid
implosion of gas bubbles in the liquid can
be a highly destructive force.
 If not monitored for appropriately, this can
internally destroy a mechanical system.

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 Speed of Sound
 Aside from cavitation, we can cause damage to
pipes, ductwork, and cells when we start
approaching flows that are a significant fraction of
the speed of sound in that fluid.
 This produces damaging shock waves and erosion.
 This comes from the compressibility effects present in the
fluid.
 For an ideal gas, the speed of sound is:

a   kRT 
1/ 2

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 Complicated Enough?
 The answer is…no. Not nearly enough. We have too many
assumptions and simplifications. But this will allow us to begin
working with fluids from a theoretical perspective.
 Our problems continue to complicate themselves…viscosity,
then turbulence, now cavitation and compressibility-induced
shock waves…it is apparent that a careful and engineered
approach must be taken each and every time we deal with a
flow system.
 Enough of the basics for now…how do we DEAL with a flow
system? How do we visualize the results? How do we make sense
of all of this stuff?

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 Flow Visualization
 One of the most important tools in understanding
fluid mechanics is being able to visualize what is
going on in our system.
 When we visualize these flows, we often use
one of a few standard visualization methods:
 1) Streamline 3) Streakline
 2) Pathline 4)Timeline
 Note that these are IDENTICAL in steady flow.

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 Flow Visualizations
 Streamlines
 Everywhere tangent to the velocity vector at a
given instant in time.

dr dx dy dz
  
V u v w

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 Flow Visualizations
 Pathline
 The displacement of a particle over a defined
period of time, defined by integrating its
velocity vectors in time to obtain a path.

t2 t2 t2
x   udt , y   vdt , and z   wdt
t1 t1 t1

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 Flow Visualizations
 Streaklines
 A streak line is a set of particles that has gone
through a particular point in space.
 This is the way experimental work is generally
collected.
• Injecting hydrogen bubbles, smoke, etc.

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 Flow Visualizations
 Timelines
 The set of particles that form a line in any
given instant in time.

 Note that for all of these visualizations,

streamlines are the “simple” ones to generate
analytically. The rest are a result of
experimentation.

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 Flow Visualizations
 Check out the external links on blackboard
to see some external references on flow
visualizations.
 Whole careers are dedicated to the
generation of adequate flow visualizations.
 Flow Visualization Example

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Flow Analysis Techniques
 Three primary methods of approaching a
flow problem
 Integral Analysis (Control-Volume Approach)
 Differential Analysis (Infinitessimal Approach)
 Dimensional Analysis (Experimental Study)
 For ANY of these approaches, we must
satisfy the basic laws of mechanics.

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Flow Analysis Techniques
 Flow Analysis Checklist:
 Conservation of Mass (Continuity, can also include
conservation of species for mixtures)
 Conservation of Momentum (Newton’s second law)
 Conservation of Energy (First Law of
Thermodynamics)
 A state relationship
 Adequate boundary conditions, initial conditions.
 Appropriate assumptions about our flow.

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Flow Analysis Techniques
 Assumptions
 Our principal assumptions sets come in pairs, to aid in
describing our flow condition:
• Steady or Unsteady?
• Inviscid or Viscous?
• Incompressible or Compressible?
• Gas or Liquid?
 Once we’ve made our assumptions and followed the analysis
checklist, we are more certain that our results will be meaningful.
 Coupled with White’s 1.13, this is a powerful approach to fluid
mechanics.

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 Assignment
 HW 3 has been posted on blackboard
 Project Proposals due next time!
 Individual project schedules are available
on blackboard.

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 Questions?

12/07/2006 BIEN 301 – Winter 2006-2007