AHU 100

U R AL O UT C OM E S O F M A S S
SOCIO - CU LT
CO M M U N I C AT I ON
DEFINITION
• POPULAR - LIKED, ADMIRED, OR ENJOYED BY
MANY PEOPLE OR BY A PARTICULAR PERSON OR
GROUP.
- (OF CULTURAL ACTIVITIES OR
PRODUCTS) INTENDED FOR OR SUITED TO THE
TASTE, UNDERSTANDING, OR MEANS OF THE
GENERAL PUBLIC RATHER THAN SPECIALISTS OR
INTELLECTUALS.
• CULTURE - THE CUSTOMS, ARTS, SOCIAL
INSTITUTIONS, AND ACHIEVEMENTS OF A
PARTICULAR NATION, PEOPLE, OR OTHER SOCIAL
GROUP.
- THE ARTS AND OTHER
MANIFESTATIONS OF HUMAN INTELLECTUAL
ACHIEVEMENT REGARDED COLLECTIVELY.
POPULAR CULTURE

CULTURE BASED ON THE TASTES OF ORDINARY PEOPLE RATHER

THAN AN EDUCATED ELITE.
EXAMPLES OF POPULAR CULTURE
 AGENDA SETTING THEORY
• AGENDA-SETTING DESCRIBES THE "ABILITY (OF THE NEWS MEDIA) TO INFLUENCE THE
IMPORTANCE PLACED ON THE TOPICS OF THE PUBLIC AGENDA. AGENDA-SETTING IS THE
CREATION OF PUBLIC AWARENESS AND CONCERN OF SALIENT ISSUES BY THE NEWS MEDIA. THE
STUDY OF AGENDA-SETTING DESCRIBES THE WAY MEDIA ATTEMPTS TO INFLUENCE VIEWERS,
AND ESTABLISH A HIERARCHY OF NEWS PREVALENCE. NATIONS WITH MORE POLITICAL POWER
RECEIVE HIGHER MEDIA EXPOSURE. THE AGENDA-SETTING BY MEDIA IS DRIVEN BY THE 
MEDIA'S BIAS ON THINGS SUCH AS POLITICS, ECONOMY AND CULTURE, ETC.
AGENDA SETTING THEORY IN MASS COMMUNICATION
• WHEN MAJOR NEWS HAPPENS, THE WORLD’S MASS MEDIA ORGANIZATIONS TAKE
NOTICE.
• WHETHER IT’S THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES MAKING AN ANNOUNCEMENT
OR A SEVERE STORM BATTERING A REGION, WHEN IT’S A STORY THAT AFFECTS
PEOPLE, THE NEWS MEDIA IS ON ALERT TO COVER IT, PROVIDING VIEWERS WITH THE
FACTS AND INFORMATION THEY NEED TO UNDERSTAND WHAT IS HAPPENING.
• BUT SOMETIMES IT MAY SEEM, WITH SO MUCH MEDIA FOCUS AND SCRUTINY ON A
SINGLE EVENT, THAT THE MASS MEDIA IS MISSING OR EVEN IGNORING OTHER
IMPORTANT STORIES. THIS IS THE MAIN FEATURE OF THE AGENDA-SETTING THEORY.
• THIS THEORY REFERS TO HOW THE MEDIA’S NEWS COVERAGE DETERMINES
WHICH ISSUES BECOME THE FOCUS OF PUBLIC ATTENTION.
• FIRST INTRODUCED IN 1972 BY COLLEGE PROFESSORS, MAXWELL MCCOMBS AND
DONALD SHAW, THEY FOUND IN SURVEYING NORTH CAROLINA VOTERS DURING
THE 1968 U.S. PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION THAT WHAT PEOPLE THOUGHT WERE THE
MOST IMPORTANT ISSUES WERE WHAT THE MASS MEDIA REPORTED AS THE
MOST CRITICAL.
• THUS, AGENDA-SETTING THEORY WAS BORN, BUILT ON THE NOTION THAT THE
MASS MEDIA SETS THE AGENDA FOR WHAT PEOPLE SHOULD CARE ABOUT.
HISTORY
AGENDA-SETTING THEORY WAS FORMALLY DEVELOPED BY MAX MCCOMBS AND 
DONALD SHAW IN A STUDY ON THE 1968 AMERICAN PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION.
AGENDA SETTING IS A SOCIAL SCIENCE THEORY; IT ALSO ATTEMPTS TO MAKE
PREDICTIONS. THE THEORY ALSO SUGGESTS THAT MEDIA HAS A GREAT INFLUENCE
TO THEIR AUDIENCE BY INSTILLING WHAT THEY SHOULD THINK ABOUT, INSTEAD OF
WHAT THEY ACTUALLY THINK. THAT IS, IF A NEWS ITEM IS COVERED FREQUENTLY
AND PROMINENTLY, THE AUDIENCE WILL REGARD THE ISSUE AS MORE IMPORTANT.
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE AGENDA SETTING THEORY
• IN THE 1968 "CHAPEL HILL STUDY", MCCOMBS AND SHAW DEMONSTRATED A STRONG 
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT . BETWEEN WHAT 100 RESIDENTS OF CHAPEL HILL, NORTH CAROLINA
 THOUGHT WAS THE MOST IMPORTANT ELECTION ISSUE AND WHAT THE LOCAL AND NATIONAL
NEWS MEDIA REPORTED WAS THE MOST IMPORTANT ISSUE. BY COMPARING THE SALIENCE OF
ISSUES IN NEWS CONTENT WITH THE PUBLIC'S PERCEPTIONS OF THE MOST IMPORTANT ELECTION
ISSUE, MCCOMBS AND SHAW  WERE ABLE TO DETERMINE THE DEGREE TO WHICH THE MEDIA
DETERMINES PUBLIC OPINION. SINCE THE 1968 STUDY, PUBLISHED IN A 1972 EDITION OF 
PUBLIC OPINION QUARTERLY, MORE THAN 400 STUDIES HAVE BEEN PUBLISHED ON THE AGENDA-
SETTING FUNCTION OF THE MASS MEDIA, AND THE THEORY CONTINUES TO BE REGARDED AS
RELEVANT.
TWO BASIC ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT AGENDA SETTING THEORY

•THE FIRST IS THAT THE MEDIA FILTERS AND SHAPES WHAT WE SEE RATHER THAN JUST REFLECTING
STORIES TO THE AUDIENCE. AN EXAMPLE OF THIS IS SEEING A SENSATIONAL OR SCANDALOUS
STORY AT THE TOP OF A BROADCAST AS OPPOSED TO A STORY THAT HAPPENED MORE RECENTLY OR
ONE THAT AFFECTS MORE PEOPLE, SUCH AS AN APPROACHING STORM OR LEGISLATIVE TAX
REFORM.
•THE SECOND ASSUMPTION IS THAT THE MORE ATTENTION THE MEDIA GIVES TO AN ISSUE, THE
MORE LIKELY THE PUBLIC WILL CONSIDER THAT ISSUE TO BE IMPORTANT. ANOTHER WAY TO LOOK
AT IT: MASS MEDIA ORGANIZATIONS AREN’T TELLING US WHAT TO THINK OR HOW WE SHOULD FEEL
ABOUT A STORY OR ISSUE, BUT ARE GIVING US CERTAIN STORIES OR ISSUES THAT PEOPLE SHOULD
THINK MORE ABOUT.
THREE TYPES OF AGENDA SETTING
•PUBLIC AGENDA SETTING: WHEN THE PUBLIC DETERMINES THE AGENDA
FOR WHICH STORIES ARE CONSIDERED IMPORTANT
•MEDIA AGENDA SETTING: WHEN THE MEDIA DETERMINES THE AGENDA FOR
WHICH STORIES ARE CONSIDERED IMPORTANT
•POLICY AGENDA SETTING: WHEN BOTH THE PUBLIC AND MEDIA AGENDAS
INFLUENCE THE DECISIONS OF PUBLIC POLICY MAKERS
AGENDA SETTING THEORY MODEL
FOR SUPPLEMENTAL LEARNING:

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THE THEORY OF THE NETIZEN
• THE TERM AND CONCEPT OF THE NETIZEN WAS DEVELOPED IN 1993 BY THE INTERNET
THEORIST AND AUTHOR MICHAEL FREDERICK HAUBEN (MAY 01, 1973 – JUNE 27,
2001). HE PIONEERED THE STUDY OF THE SOCIAL IMPACT OF THE INTERNET.
• ACCORDING TO HAUBEN, A NETIZEN IS AN INTERNET USER WHO ACTIVELY
CONTRIBUTES TOWARDS THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NET AND ACTS AS A CITIZEN OF
THE NET AND OF THE WORLD.
• HAUBEN’S WORK IS WIDELY REFERENCED IN MANY SCHOLARLY ARTICLES AND
PUBLICATIONS ABOUT THE SOCIAL IMPACT OF THE INTERNET.
• BASED ON HIS INTERACTIVE ONLINE RESEARCH, HAUBEN COINED THE TERM “NETIZEN’ AND
INTRODUCED IT TO POPULAR USE. HIS INITIAL RESEARCH CONCERNED THE ORIGINS AND
DEVELOPMENT OF THE GLOBAL DISCUSSION FORUM “USENET”. HE WANTED TO EXPLORE THE
LARGER NET AND WHAT IT WAS AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE. THAT WAS WHEN HIS RESEARCH
UNCOVERED THE EMERGENCE OF NETIZENS. THESE ARE PEOPLE ONLINE WHO ACTIVELY
CONTRIBUTE TOWARDS THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NET.

• NETIZENS UNDERSTAND THE VALUE OF COLLECTIVE WORK AND COMMUNAL ASPECTS OF PUBLIC
COMMUNICATIONS. THESE ARE PEOPLE WHO DISCUSS THE NATURE AND ROLE OF THIS NEW
COMMUNICATIONS MEDIUM.

• THE WORD CITIZEN SUGGESTS A GEOGRAPHIC OR NATIONAL DEFINITION OF SOCIAL MEMBERSHIP.

THE WORD NETIZEN REFLECTS THE NEW NON-GEOGRAPHICALLY BASED SOCIAL MEMBERSHIP.
• HAUBEN’S 1993 ARTICLE "COMMON SENSE: THE IMPACT THE NET HAS ON PEOPLE'S
LIVES" WAS AN ANALYSIS OF RESPONSES HAUBEN RECEIVED TO QUESTIONS HE POSTED ON
NEWSGROUPS AND MAILING LISTS. THE ARTICLE BEGINS, “WELCOME TO THE 21ST CENTURY.
YOU ARE A NETIZEN (A NET CITIZEN), AND YOU EXIST AS A CITIZEN OF THE WORLD THANKS TO
THE GLOBAL CONNECTIVITY THAT THE NET MAKES POSSIBLE. YOU CONSIDER EVERYONE AS
YOUR COMPATRIOT. YOU PHYSICALLY LIVE IN ONE COUNTRY BUT YOU ARE IN CONTACT WITH
MUCH OF THE WORLD VIA THE GLOBAL COMPUTER NETWORK. VIRTUALLY, YOU LIVE NEXT
DOOR TO EVERY OTHER SINGLE NETIZEN IN THE WORLD. GEOGRAPHICAL SEPARATION IS
REPLACED BY EXISTENCE IN THE SAME VIRTUAL SPACE.”
• WHILE STILL AN UNDERGRADUATE, HAUBEN BEGAN TO DEVELOP A THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK FOR HIS VISION OF THE SOCIAL IMPACT OF THE NET AND THE NETIZENS. IN
HIS ARTICLE "THE EXPANDING COMMONWEALTH OF LEARNING: PRINTING AND THE NET, HE
APPLIED HIS STUDY OF THE PRINTING REVOLUTION ESPECIALLY THE WORK OF 
ELIZABETH EISENSTEIN TO AN ANALYSIS OF THE TRAJECTORY IN WHICH THE INTERNET AND
NETIZENS ARE TAKING SOCIETY.
• USING A SIMILAR METHOD OF ANALYSIS, HAUBEN FOUND INSIGHTS ABOUT THE INTERNET
IN THE UNDERSTANDINGS OF THE 19TH CENTURY SCOTTISH PHILOSOPHER JAMES MILL
 ABOUT THE IMPORTANCE OF "LIBERTY OF THE PRESS". HE ARGUED THAT THE NET WAS
MAKING IT POSSIBLE FOR CITIZENS AS NETIZENS TO BE THE WATCHDOGS OVER
GOVERNMENTS WHICH MILL ARGUED WAS THE FUNCTION OF LIBERTY OF THE PRESS.
• HE SAW IN THE WORK OF THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST MARGARET MEAD
 THAT EVEN IN THE 1960S A GLOBAL CULTURE WAS EMERGING. USING THE
WRITINGS OF MEAD, HE COUNTERED THE CRITICS WHO CLAIMED THAT THE
INTERNET'S MASS CULTURE WAS SNUFFING OUT CULTURAL DIFFERENCES. HE
SAW INSTEAD THAT "MORE AND MORE PEOPLE OF VARIOUS CULTURES ARE
UNDERSTANDING THE POWER OF THE NEW COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES.
MORE AND MORE PEOPLE ARE REACTING AGAINST THE MASS MEDIA AND
CORPORATE DOMINANCE AND CALLING FOR A CHANCE TO EXPRESS THEIR VIEWS
AND CONTRIBUTE THEIR CULTURE INTO THE GLOBAL CULTURE.
• HAUBEN ALSO EXPLORED THE QUESTION WHETHER PARTICIPATORY DEMOCRACY
AND NETIZENSHIP ARE RELATED.
• HAUBEN'S CONCLUSION WAS THAT "THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERNET AND
EMERGENCE OF THE NETIZENS IS AN INVESTMENT IN A STRONG FORCE TOWARDS
MAKING DIRECT DEMOCRACY A REALITY. THE NEW TECHNOLOGIES PRESENT THE
CHANCE TO OVERCOME THE OBSTACLES PREVENTING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF
DIRECT DEMOCRACY. ONLINE COMMUNICATION FORUMS ALSO MAKE POSSIBLE
THE DISCUSSION NECESSARY TO IDENTIFY TODAY'S FUNDAMENTAL QUESTIONS.
DEMOCRATIZATION OF MEDIA

• MEDIA IS DEFINED AS “MEDIUM” – A WAY OF COMMUNICATING WITH OTHERS. IT IS

THE MAIN MEANS OF MASS COMMUNICATION (BROADCASTING, PUBLISHING AND
THE INTERNET) REGARDED COLLECTIVELY.
• MEDIA IS THE COMMUNICATION OUTLETS OR TOOLS USED TO STORE AND DELIVER
INFORMATION OR DATA. THE TERM REFERS TO COMPONENTS OF THE MASS MEDIA
COMMUNICATIONS INDUSTRY, SUCH AS PRINT MEDIA, PUBLISHING, THE NEWS
MEDIA, PHOTOGRAPHY, CINEMA, BROADCASTING (RADIO AND TELEVISION), AND
ADVERTISING.
•MAINSTREAM MEDIA IS A PLACE WHERE ANYONE CAN CONTRIBUTE TO
IMPORTANT ISSUES AND TOPICS OF DISCUSSION.
•MEDIA DEMOCRACY ENCOMPASSES THIS IDEA BY ADVOCATING FOR
IDEAS SUCH AS FREE AND INDEPENDENT PRESS. THE GOAL IS TO ACHIEVE
A FREE, OPEN, AND ACCESSIBLE INTERNET FOR EVERYONE. THUS CREATING
A DIVERSE SPACE FOR MEDIA OWNERSHIP FROM ALL WALKS OF LIFE TO
CONTRIBUTE INTO A LARGER COLLECTIVE WITHOUT SUPPRESSION.
• MEDIA DEMOCRACY IS A DEMOCRATIC APPROACH TO MEDIA STUDIES THAT
ADVOCATES FOR THE REFORM OF MASS MEDIA TO STRENGTHEN 
PUBLIC SERVICE BROADCASTING AND DEVELOP PARTICIPATION IN 
ALTERNATIVE MEDIA AND CITIZEN JOURNALISM IN ORDER TO CREATE A MASS
MEDIA SYSTEM THAT INFORMS AND EMPOWERS ALL MEMBERS OF SOCIETY AND
ENHANCES DEMOCRATIC VALUES.

• MEDIA DEMOCRACY FOCUSES ON THE EMPOWERMENT OF INDIVIDUAL CITIZENS

AND PROMOTION DEMOCRATIC IDEALS THROUGH THE SPREAD OF INFORMATION.
DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION THEORY
• DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION (DOI) THEORY, DEVELOPED BY E.M. ROGERS IN 1962, IS ONE OF THE
OLDEST SOCIAL SCIENCE THEORIES. IT ORIGINATED IN COMMUNICATION TO EXPLAIN HOW, OVER
TIME, AN IDEA OR PRODUCT GAINS MOMENTUM AND DIFFUSES (OR SPREADS) THROUGH A
SPECIFIC POPULATION OR SOCIAL SYSTEM. 

• THE END RESULT OF THIS DIFFUSION IS THAT PEOPLE, AS PART OF A SOCIAL SYSTEM, ADOPT A NEW
IDEA, BEHAVIOR, OR PRODUCT.   ADOPTION MEANS THAT A PERSON DOES SOMETHING DIFFERENTLY
THAN WHAT THEY HAD PREVIOUSLY (I.E., PURCHASE OR USE A NEW PRODUCT, ACQUIRE AND
PERFORM A NEW BEHAVIOR, ETC.). THE KEY TO ADOPTION IS THAT THE PERSON MUST PERCEIVE
THE IDEA, BEHAVIOR, OR PRODUCT AS NEW OR INNOVATIVE. IT IS THROUGH THIS THAT DIFFUSION
IS POSSIBLE.  
• WHEN PROMOTING AN INNOVATION TO A TARGET POPULATION, IT IS IMPORTANT TO
UNDERSTAND THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TARGET POPULATION THAT WILL HELP
OR HINDER ADOPTION OF THE INNOVATION.
• THERE ARE FIVE ESTABLISHED ADOPTER CATEGORIES:
1. INNOVATORS - THESE ARE PEOPLE WHO WANT TO BE THE FIRST TO TRY THE
INNOVATION. THEY ARE VENTURESOME AND INTERESTED IN NEW IDEAS. THESE PEOPLE
ARE VERY WILLING TO TAKE RISKS, AND ARE OFTEN THE FIRST TO DEVELOP NEW IDEAS.
VERY LITTLE, IF ANYTHING, NEEDS TO BE DONE TO APPEAL TO THIS POPULATION.
2. EARLY ADOPTERS - THESE ARE PEOPLE WHO REPRESENT OPINION
LEADERS. THEY ENJOY LEADERSHIP ROLES, AND EMBRACE CHANGE
OPPORTUNITIES. THEY ARE ALREADY AWARE OF THE NEED TO
CHANGE AND SO ARE VERY COMFORTABLE ADOPTING NEW IDEAS.
STRATEGIES TO APPEAL TO THIS POPULATION INCLUDE HOW-TO
MANUALS AND INFORMATION SHEETS ON IMPLEMENTATION. THEY
DO NOT NEED INFORMATION TO CONVINCE THEM TO CHANGE.
3. EARLY MAJORITY - THESE PEOPLE ARE RARELY LEADERS, BUT
THEY DO ADOPT NEW IDEAS BEFORE THE AVERAGE PERSON. THAT
SAID, THEY TYPICALLY NEED TO SEE EVIDENCE THAT THE
INNOVATION WORKS BEFORE THEY ARE WILLING TO ADOPT IT.
STRATEGIES TO APPEAL TO THIS POPULATION INCLUDE SUCCESS
STORIES AND EVIDENCE OF THE INNOVATION'S EFFECTIVENESS.
4. LATE MAJORITY - THESE PEOPLE ARE SKEPTICAL OF
CHANGE, AND WILL ONLY ADOPT AN INNOVATION AFTER IT
HAS BEEN TRIED BY THE MAJORITY. STRATEGIES TO APPEAL
TO THIS POPULATION INCLUDE INFORMATION ON HOW
MANY OTHER PEOPLE HAVE TRIED THE INNOVATION AND
HAVE ADOPTED IT SUCCESSFULLY.
5. LAGGARDS - THESE PEOPLE ARE BOUND BY TRADITION
AND VERY CONSERVATIVE. THEY ARE VERY SKEPTICAL OF
CHANGE AND ARE THE HARDEST GROUP TO BRING ON
BOARD. STRATEGIES TO APPEAL TO THIS POPULATION
INCLUDE STATISTICS, FEAR APPEALS, AND PRESSURE FROM
PEOPLE IN THE OTHER ADOPTER GROUPS.
•THE STAGES BY WHICH A PERSON ADOPTS AN INNOVATION, AND
WHEREBY DIFFUSION IS ACCOMPLISHED INCLUDE:
1. AWARENESS OF THE NEED FOR AN INNOVATION
2.DECISION TO ADOPT (OR REJECT) THE INNOVATION
3.INITIAL USE OF INNOVATION TO TEST IT
4.CONTINUED USE OF THE INNOVATION
•FIVE MAIN FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ADOPTION OF AN INNOVATION

1. RELATIVE ADVANTAGE - THE DEGREE TO WHICH AN INNOVATION IS SEEN

AS BETTER THAN THE IDEA, PROGRAM, OR PRODUCT IT REPLACES.
2. COMPATIBILITY - HOW CONSISTENT THE INNOVATION IS WITH THE
VALUES, EXPERIENCES, AND NEEDS OF THE POTENTIAL ADOPTERS.
3. COMPLEXITY - HOW DIFFICULT THE INNOVATION IS TO UNDERSTAND
AND/OR USE.
4. TRIABILITY - THE EXTENT TO WHICH THE INNOVATION CAN BE
TESTED OR EXPERIMENTED WITH BEFORE A COMMITMENT TO
ADOPT IS MADE.

5. OBSERVABILITY - THE EXTENT TO WHICH THE INNOVATION

PROVIDES TANGIBLE RESULTS.
•THIS THEORY HAS BEEN USED SUCCESSFULLY IN MANY FIELDS
INCLUDING COMMUNICATION, AGRICULTURE, PUBLIC HEALTH,
CRIMINAL JUSTICE, SOCIAL WORK, AND MARKETING. IN PUBLIC
HEALTH, DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION THEORY IS USED TO
ACCELERATE THE ADOPTION OF IMPORTANT PUBLIC HEALTH
PROGRAMS THAT TYPICALLY AIM TO CHANGE THE BEHAVIOR OF A
SOCIAL SYSTEM. 
SPIRAL OF SILENCE THEORY
• ORIGINALLY PROPOSED BY GERMAN POLITICAL SCIENTIST 
ELISABETH NOELLE-NEUMANN IN 1974, SPIRAL OF SILENCE IS THE TERM MEANT TO
REFER TO THE TENDENCY OF PEOPLE TO REMAIN SILENT WHEN THEY FEEL THAT THEIR
VIEWS ARE IN OPPOSITION TO THE MAJORITY VIEW ON A SUBJECT.
• THIS STIPULATES THAT INDIVIDUALS HAVE A FEAR OF ISOLATION. THIS FEAR OF
ISOLATION CONSEQUENTLY LEADS TO REMAINING SILENT INSTEAD OF VOICING
OPINIONS. 
• MEDIA ARE AN IMPORTANT FACTOR THAT INFLUENCES BOTH THE DOMINANT IDEA
AND PEOPLE’S PERCEPTION OF WHAT THE DOMINANT IDEA IS.
•THE FOLLOWING STEPS SUMMARIZE HOW THE PROCESS WORKS:
1. THE MODEL BEGINS WITH INDIVIDUALS' INHERENT DESIRE TO BLEND
WITH SOCIETY. THE FEAR OF SOCIAL ISOLATION IS NECESSARY FOR THE
SPIRAL TO OCCUR.
2. INDIVIDUALS WHO NOTICE THAT THEIR PERSONAL OPINION IS
SPREADING WILL VOICE THIS OPINION CONFIDENTLY IN PUBLIC. ON THE
OTHER HAND, INDIVIDUALS WHO NOTICE THAT THEIR OPINIONS ARE
LOSING GROUND WILL BE INCLINED TO ADOPT A MORE RESERVED ATTITUDE
WHEN EXPRESSING THEIR OPINIONS IN PUBLIC.
3. REPRESENTATIVES OF THE SPREADING OPINION TALK QUITE A LOT WHILE THE REPRESENTATIVES
OF THE SECOND OPINION REMAIN SILENT. AN OPINION THAT IS BEING REINFORCED IN THIS WAY
APPEARS STRONGER THAN IT REALLY IS, WHILE AN OPINION SUPPRESSED WILL SEEM TO BE WEAKER
THAN IT REALLY IS.

4. THE RESULT IS A SPIRAL PROCESS WHICH PROMPTS OTHER INDIVIDUALS TO PERCEIVE THE
CHANGES IN OPINION AND FOLLOW SUIT UNTIL ONE OPINION HAS BECOME ESTABLISHED AS THE
PREVAILING ATTITUDE WHILE THE OTHER OPINION WILL BE PUSHED BACK AND REJECTED BY MOST.
THE END OF THE SPIRAL REFERS TO THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE WHO ARE NOT PUBLICLY EXPRESSING
THEIR OPINIONS, DUE TO THE FEAR OF ISOLATION.
• CRUCIAL POINTS TO REMEMBER:
1. PEOPLE CONSTANTLY OBSERVE BEHAVIORS AROUND THEM TO SEE WHICH GAIN
APPROVAL AND DISAPPROVAL FROM SOCIETY.
2. PEOPLE ARE MORE WILLING TO PUBLICLY STATE OPINIONS THEY BELIEVE WILL BE
ACCEPTED POSITIVELY.
3. SPIRAL EFFECT BEGINS WHEN OPPOSITION TO MAJORITY FEELS GREATER SENSE OF
ISOLATION.
4. STRONG MORAL COMPONENT IS NECESSARY TO ACTIVATE THE SPIRAL.
CULTURAL DIPLOMACY

•CULTURAL DIPLOMACY MAY BEST BE DESCRIBED AS A COURSE

OF ACTIONS, WHICH ARE BASED ON AND UTILIZE THE EXCHANGE
OF IDEAS, VALUES, TRADITIONS AND OTHER ASPECTS OF
CULTURE OR IDENTITY, WHETHER TO STRENGTHEN
RELATIONSHIPS, ENHANCE SOCIO-CULTURAL COOPERATION,
PROMOTE NATIONAL INTERESTS AND BEYOND
•CULTURAL DIPLOMACY CAN BE PRACTICED BY EITHER THE
PUBLIC SECTOR, PRIVATE SECTOR OR CIVIL SOCIETY."
•CULTURE IS A SET OF VALUES AND PRACTICES THAT CREATE MEANING FOR
SOCIETY. THIS INCLUDES BOTH HIGH CULTURE (LITERATURE, ART, AND
EDUCATION, WHICH APPEALS TO ELITES) AND POPULAR CULTURE (
APPEALS TO THE MASSES). THIS IS WHAT GOVERNMENTS SEEK TO SHOW
FOREIGN AUDIENCES WHEN ENGAGING IN CULTURAL DIPLOMACY. IT IS A
TYPE OF SOFT POWER, WHICH IS THE "ABILITY TO GET WHAT YOU WANT
THROUGH ATTRACTION RATHER THAN COERCION OR PAYMENTS. IT
ARISES FROM A COUNTRY'S CULTURE, POLITICAL IDEALS AND POLICIES.
• THIS INDICATES THAT THE VALUE OF CULTURE IS ITS ABILITY TO ATTRACT
FOREIGNERS TO A NATION. CULTURAL DIPLOMACY IS ALSO A COMPONENT OF 
PUBLIC DIPLOMACY. PUBLIC DIPLOMACY IS ENHANCED BY A LARGER SOCIETY AND
CULTURE, BUT SIMULTANEOUSLY PUBLIC DIPLOMACY HELPS TO "AMPLIFY AND
ADVERTISE THAT SOCIETY AND CULTURE TO THE WORLD AT LARGE". IT COULD BE
ARGUED THAT THE INFORMATION COMPONENT OF PUBLIC DIPLOMACY CAN ONLY BE
FULLY EFFECTIVE WHERE THERE IS ALREADY A RELATIONSHIP THAT GIVES
CREDIBILITY TO THE INFORMATION BEING RELAYED. THIS COMES FROM KNOWLEDGE
OF THE OTHER'S CULTURE.
•HISTORY
- CULTURAL DIPLOMACY (OR "DIPLOMACY BETWEEN CULTURES") HAS EXISTED
AS A PRACTICE FOR CENTURIES.  WHILE THE TERM "CULTURAL DIPLOMACY" HAS
ONLY RECENTLY BEEN ESTABLISHED, EVIDENCE OF ITS PRACTICE CAN BE SEEN
THROUGHOUT HISTORY AND HAS EXISTED FOR CENTURIES. EXPLORERS,
TRAVELERS, TRADERS, TEACHERS AND ARTISTS CAN BE ALL CONSIDERED LIVING
EXAMPLES OF “INFORMAL AMBASSADORS” OR EARLY “CULTURAL DIPLOMATS”.
INDEED, ANY PERSON WHO INTERACTS WITH DIFFERENT CULTURES, (CURRENTLY
OR IN THE PAST), FACILITATES A FORM OF CULTURAL EXCHANGE, WHICH CAN
TAKE PLACE IN FIELDS SUCH AS ART, SPORTS, LITERATURE, MUSIC, SCIENCE,
BUSINESS & ECONOMY AND BEYOND.
-THROUGHOUT HISTORY THE INTERACTION OF PEOPLES, THE
EXCHANGE OF LANGUAGE, RELIGION, IDEAS, ARTS AND SOCIETAL
STRUCTURES HAVE CONSISTENTLY IMPROVED RELATIONS
BETWEEN DIVERGENT GROUPS. CULTURAL DIPLOMACY TODAY IS
A VIBRANT AND INNOVATIVE ACADEMIC FIELD OF RESEARCH AND
HAS SUCCESSFULLY ESTABLISHED ITSELF AS A STAND-ALONE
THEORY AND PRACTICE.
•PURPOSE
ULTIMATELY, THE GOAL OF CULTURAL DIPLOMACY IS TO INFLUENCE A FOREIGN AUDIENCE
AND USE THAT INFLUENCE, WHICH IS BUILT UP OVER THE LONG TERM, AS A SORT OF
GOOD WILL RESERVE TO WIN SUPPORT FOR POLICIES. IT SEEKS TO HARNESS THE
ELEMENTS OF CULTURE TO INDUCE FOREIGNERS TO:
• HAVE A POSITIVE VIEW OF THE COUNTRY'S PEOPLE, CULTURE AND POLICIES,
• INDUCE GREATER COOPERATION BETWEEN THE TWO NATIONS,
• AID IN CHANGING THE POLICIES OR POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE TARGET NATION,
• PREVENT, MANAGE AND MITIGATE CONFLICT WITH THE TARGET NATION.
•TOOLS AND EXAMPLES
CULTURAL DIPLOMACY UTILIZE EVERY ASPECT OF A NATION'S CULTURE. THIS INCLUDES:

• THE ARTS INCLUDING FILMS, DANCE, MUSIC, PAINTING, SCULPTURE, ETC.

• EXHIBITIONS WHICH OFFER THE POTENTIAL TO SHOWCASE NUMEROUS OBJECTS OF CULTURE
• EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS SUCH AS UNIVERSITIES AND LANGUAGE PROGRAMS ABROAD
• EXCHANGES- SCIENTIFIC, ARTISTIC, EDUCATIONAL ETC.
• LITERATURE- THE ESTABLISHMENT OF LIBRARIES ABROAD AND TRANSLATION OF POPULAR AND NATIONAL WORKS
• BROADCASTING OF NEWS AND CULTURAL PROGRAMS
• GIFTS TO A NATION, WHICH DEMONSTRATES THOUGHTFULNESS AND RESPECT
• RELIGIOUS DIPLOMACY, INCLUDING INTER-RELIGIOUS DIALOGUE
• PROMOTION AND EXPLANATION OF IDEAS AND SOCIAL POLICIES
•TV, MUSIC, FILM
POPULAR ENTERTAINMENT IS A STATEMENT ABOUT THE SOCIETY WHICH IT
IS PORTRAYING. THESE CULTURAL DISPLAYS CAN CARRY IMPORTANT
MESSAGES REGARDING INDIVIDUALISM, CONSUMER CHOICES AND OTHER
VALUES. FOR EXAMPLE, SOVIET AUDIENCES WATCHING AMERICAN FILMS
LEARNED THAT AMERICANS OWNED THEIR OWN CARS, DID NOT HAVE TO
STAND IN LONG LINES TO PURCHASE FOOD, AND DID NOT LIVE IN
COMMUNAL APARTMENTS. THESE OBSERVATIONS WERE NOT INTENDED TO
BE POLITICAL MESSAGES WHEN HOLLYWOOD CREATED THE FILMS, BUT
THEY NONE-THE-LESS CARRIED A MESSAGE.
• THE EFFECT THE BEATLES HAD IN RUSSIA DURING THE COLD WAR IS AN EXAMPLE OF
HOW MUSIC ARTISTS AND THEIR SONGS CAN BECOME POLITICAL. DURING THIS
TIME, ROCK MUSIC CHANELLED LIBERAL "WESTERN" IDEAS AS A PROGRESSIVE AND
MODERNIZED ART FORM. THE BEATLES SYMBOLIZED THE WESTERN CULTURE IN A
WAY THAT INTRODUCED NEW IDEAS THAT MANY BELIEVE ASSISTED IN THE
COLLAPSE OF COMMUNISM. AS A RESULT, THE BEATLES SERVED AS CULTURAL
DIPLOMATS THROUGH THEIR POPULARITY IN THE SOVIET UNION. THEIR MUSIC
FOSTERED YOUTH COMMUNICATION AND UNITED PEOPLE WITH A COMMON SPIRIT
OF POPULAR CULTURE.
THE PROCESS OF WESTERNIZATION
•WESTERNIZATION, ALSO CALLED EUROPEANIZATION OR
OCCIDENTALIZATION (FROM THE OCCIDENT), IS A PROCESS
WHERE SOCIETIES ADOPT WESTERN CULTURE IN AREAS SUCH AS
INDUSTRY, TECHNOLOGY, POLITICS, ECONOMICS, LIFESTYLE, LAW,
NORMS, CUSTOMS, TRADITIONS, VALUES, MENTALITY,
PERCEPTIONS, FOOD, CLOTHING, LANGUAGE, ALPHABET, RELIGION
AD PHILOSOPHY. DURING COLONIALISM IT OFTEN INVOLVED
SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY.
•WESTERNIZATION TRACES ITS ROOTS BACK TO ANCIENT GREECE. LATER,
THE ROMAN EMPIRE WOULD TAKE ON THE FIRST PROCESS OF
WESTERNIZATION AS IT WAS HEAVILY INFLUENCED BY GREECE AND
CREATED A NEW CULTURE BASED ON THE PRINCIPLES AND VALUES OF THE
ANCIENT GREEK SOCIETY. THE ROMANS EMERGED WITH A CULTURE THAT
WOULD LAY THE NEW FOUNDATIONS OF EUROPE AND GROW INTO A NEW
WESTERN IDENTITY BASED ON THE GRECO-ROMAN SOCIETY.
•WESTERNIZATION CAN ALSO BE COMPARED TO ACCULTURATION AND 
ENCULTURATION. ACCULTURATION IS "THE PROCESS OF CULTURAL AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL CHANGE THAT TAKES PLACE AS A RESULT OF CONTACT
BETWEEN CULTURAL GROUPS AND THEIR INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS." AFTER
CONTACT, CHANGES IN CULTURAL PATTERNS ARE EVIDENT WITHIN  ONE 
OR BOTH  CULTURES.
• WESTERNIZATION, THE ADOPTION OF THE PRACTICES AND CULTURE OF WESTERN EUROPE BY
SOCIETIES AND COUNTRIES IN OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD, WHETHER THROUGH COMPULSION
OR INFLUENCE. WESTERNIZATION REACHED MUCH OF THE WORLD AS PART OF THE PROCESS OF 
COLONIALISM AND CONTINUES TO BE A SIGNIFICANT CULTURAL PHENOMENON AS A RESULT OF
GLOBALIZATION.

• WESTERNIZATION BEGAN WITH TRADERS, COLONIZERS, AND MISSIONARIES FROM WESTERN

EUROPE WHO BELIEVED THAT THEIR WAY OF LIFE WAS SUPERIOR TO THOSE OF THE PEOPLES IN
THE COUNTRIES TO WHICH THEY TRAVELED. THE OCCUPIED PEOPLES WERE REQUIRED OR
ENCOURAGED TO ADOPT WESTERN EUROPEAN BUSINESS PRACTICES, LANGUAGES, ALPHABETS,
AND ATTIRE. THEY WERE ALSO ENCOURAGED TO ASSUME WESTERN EUROPEAN EDUCATION
SYSTEMS, LITERARY AND ARTISTIC STANDARDS, AND TO CONVERT TO CHRISTIANITY. MANY
COUNTRIES HAD WESTERN TYPES OF GOVERNMENT AND MILITARY PRACTICES IMPOSED ON
THEM.
•IN THE 20TH CENTURY THE UNITED STATES, ITSELF THE RESULT OF
WESTERN EUROPEAN COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA,
ARGUABLY BECAME THE MOST SIGNIFICANT EXPORTER OF
WESTERN CULTURE. ITS MOVIES, POPULAR MUSIC, AND POPULAR
FASHION WERE TAKEN UP NOT ONLY IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND 
CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA BUT EVEN IN WESTERN EUROPE
ITSELF. TECHNOLOGY ACTED AS BOTH A FORM OF AND A
TRANSMITTER OF WESTERNIZATION.