One more bond is there

• Metallic bond
In metals all the electrons are shared by all
the atoms at one time.
Metals easily conduct electricity because
one extra electron can be added or
removed without removing it from a single
discrete atom.
Metal Bond
Hard, shiny, ductile, molecule-like structures.
Metals easily conduct because one extra
electron can be added or removed
without removing it from a single discrete
atom.
Note:
Chemical bond, exchange of electron,
asymmetric and symmetric electron density
distribution.
Symmetric distribution but in one particular
direction makes a covalent bond
When bonding takes place in multiple,
spatial directions which furthermore is
combined with high mobility of electrons, it
is known as metal bond.
This spatial non-constraint makes an extended
bond network, hence a three-dimensional
solid.
Metal bonds facilitate adhesion to surfaces
in nanotechnology.
 0 interatomic distance

van der Waals (weak) bond

Ionic/covalent bond
ni b mo C
This effect is not influenced by other bonds,
i.e., created by exchange of atoms,
therefore these are relatively weak force,
known as van der Waals force.
This force is important in Nanotechnology.
This can very easily be provoked or broken
even at room temperature.
When two surfaces come closer to each
other, the electron shells of approaching
molecules influence only in conjunction with
the van der Waals force.
van der Waals bonds are extremely
important in Nanotechnology:
• hydrophobic interactions
• resist technology of nanolithography
• living cells specially in 3-dim proteins
van der Waals force is an intermolecular
force.
The name refers to a Dutch chemist
Johannes Diderik van der Waals.
Generally refers to those forces that arise
from the polarization of molecules into
dipoles.
van der Waals force is commonly observed
in noble gases.
Three forms of van der Waals force are:
• Dipole – Dipole force
• London force
• Hydrogen bonding
Dipole – Dipole force
Dipoles are two opposite poles of charges.
Different from monopoles (single charge).
External electric fields can distort the
charge distribution of a dielectric material
(atom/molecule) by stretching or by rotating.
When it is done by stretching, a dipole is
formed.
Some interaction is caused by dipole
moment.
When you put a neutral atom in an
external electric field, it polarizes.
Or, charge is induced in vicinity of some
other charged body.
These dissimilar charges attract each
other, interaction starts.
Bonds between two atoms could be
symmetrical or asymmetrical - because of
electronegativity of atoms that are bound
together. Molecules of assymetrical bond
exhibit an inhomogeneous electron
distribution in the surroundings causing an
electrical polarity that generates dipole
moment. Such molecules, with one or more
dipole moments, attract each other. The
intensity of polarity determines the strength
of the dipole-dipole interaction.
If a H atom (a0 = 0.5 Å) is kept between two
metal plates 1 mm apart maintained at V =
500 V, the relative displacement between
positive and negative charge centres would
be d = 2.29x10-16 m. It would require 108 V to
ionize this hydrogen atom.
Molecules polarize more readily in some
direction than other.
Some molecules are naturally polar, like
water molecule.
Like any charge these dipoles or polar
molecules also have their own potential and
hence the electric field.
 This potential will cause an electric field

Now imagine a situation when this dipole p1

comes closer to another dipole p2 of opposite
orientation.
p2 will interact with E1 with an interaction
energy given by
U = - p2 . E1
which can readily be expressed as

Force is the negative derivative of this

interaction energy U.
Hence the two dipoles will attract each other
with a magnitude

F ~ -3 p1 p2 / (4π ε 0 r 4
).

where r is the separation distance between

these two. This is the reason why polar
molecules, such as H2O, attract each other.
Smaller the separation more is the attraction
and hence closeness. This attraction between
two molecules encourages them to condense
to a liquid or solid phase.
Other mechanisms of occurrence of dipole-
dipole interaction:
• polar molecule and a non-polar molecule
(interaction in such case is weaker than that
between two molecules having permanent
dipole moments)
• polar molecule and an ion (ion-dipole
interaction, this reduces the Coulomb field
around the ion)
Molecules with heavy atoms readily tend to
polarize – causes adsorption on the
surface.
Some bonds are created due to a relatively
weak force known as van der Waals force.
This force is important in Nanotechnology.
Three forms:
• London force
• dipole – dipole force
• hydrogen bonding
London Force
Named after German-American physicist
Fritz London.
The electrons tend to ‘wash’ around nucleus
like a wave. Electron density moves about a
molecule probabilistically.
More electrons can be found at any point of
time at a given space. This creates charge
difference resulting in a temporary multipole
and hence the force.
London forces exist between all atoms and
molecules.
They can affect charge of other atoms or
molecules not otherwise instantaneously
charged.
Hence interaction starts between the two.
In nanotechnology, London forces can
be used to pick up and move atoms.
Some interaction is caused by dipole
moment.
When you put a neutral atom in an
external electric field, it polarizes.
Or, charge is induced in vicinity of some
other charged body.
These dissimilar charges attract each
other, interaction starts.
Hydrogen bond is a typical bond where
one constituent is hydrogen atom.
Such as H2O, H2Se, ethanol, DNA.
A hydrogen bond is formed when a H
atom lies between two atoms whose
electrons are not shared in bonding.
 δ –
H in water is pulled
from one water
O molecule and partly
bonds with another.
H H
H is attracted to these
δ + δ + δ – atoms and original
bond is weakened.
O In turn, the H atoms in
this second water
H H molecule are hydrogen
δ + bonded to other water
δ + molecules.
Phase of elements or compounds
Smaller individual molecules are normally
vapors.
Water molecule (H20)
Single molecule is a gas at room temp.,
becomes water droplet when clustered, and ice
if cooled below 00C.
Solid, liquid and gaseous water are all made of
the same molecule, but the molecules are
packed together in different ways.
Similar behaviour occurs with many molecules.
Nanotechnology is largely concerned with
solid phases because the molecules or
atoms do not move around so much and
are hence easier to see.
The molecules can be arranged in regular
pattern, lattice. Called Crystalline.
These can also take disorderly shape,
amorphous. Called non-crystalline.
The types of bonds are important to
understand which phase the element or
compound will reside in.
When the bonds are strong, viz. ionic
bond, solids are formed even at high
temperatures.
When only van der Waals forces exist,
solids can be formed only at low temp. With
rise in temp., the weakest intermolecular
bonds break first.
Without hydrogen bonding, water would be
a gas at room temp.