GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Principles and Modern Applications TENTH EDITION

PETRUCCI HERRING MADURA BISSONNETTE

2
Atoms and the
Atomic Theory

PHILIP DUTTON
UNIVERSITY OF WINDSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY AND
BIOCHEMISTRY

Slide 1 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Atoms and the CONTENTS

Atomic Theory 2-1 Early Chemical Discoveries and the

Atomic Theory
2-2 Electrons and Other Discoveries in
Atomic Physics
2-3 The Nuclear Atom
2-4 Chemical Elements
2-5 Atomic Mass
2-6 Introduction to the Periodic Table
2-7 The Concept of the Mole and the
Avogadro Constant
2-8 Using the Mole Concept in
Calculations

Slide 2 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

 2-1 Early Discoveries and the Atomic Theory

Lavoisier 1774Law of conservation of mass

Proust 1799Law of constant composition

Dalton 1803-1888 Atomic Theory

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 FIGURE 2-2
Mass is conserved during a chemical reaction

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 Dalton’s Atomic Theory

1. Each element is composed of small particles

called atoms. Atoms are neither created
nor destroyed in chemical reactions.

2. All atoms of a given element are identical

and differ from all other elements

3. Compounds are formed when atoms of

more than one element combine in simple
numerical ratios.

Slide 5 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

If two elements form more than a single compound, the masses of one element
combined with a fixed mass of the second are in the ratio of small whole
numbers.

• In forming carbon
monoxide, 1.0 g of carbon
combines with 1.33 g of
oxygen.

• In forming carbon dioxide,

1.0 g of carbon combines
with 2.66 g of oxygen.

Figure 2-3
Consequences of Dalton’s theory

Slide 6 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

 2-2 Electrons and Other Discoveries
in Atomic Physics

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 FIGURE 2-5
Effect of a magnetic field on charged particles

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 FIGURE 2-6
Cathode ray tube

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 Electron m/e = -5.6857 × 10-9 g coulomb-1

FIGURE 2-7
Cathode rays and their properties

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 From 1906-1914 Robert Millikan showed ionized oil drops can
be balanced against the pull of gravity by an electric field.
The charge is an integral multiple of the electronic charge, e.

Figure 2-8
Millikan’s oil-drop experiment

Slide 11 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

 X-Rays and Radioactivity

Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission

of radiation from a substance.

• X-rays and g-rays are high-energy light.

• a-particles are a stream of helium nuclei, He2+.
• b-particles are a stream of high speed
electrons that originate in the nucleus.

Slide 12 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

 2-3 The Nuclear Atom

Geiger and Rutherford

1909

Figure 2-11
The scattering of α particles by metal foil

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 • Most of the mass and all of the positive
charge is concentrated in a small region
called the nucleus .

• There are as many electrons outside the

nucleus as there are units of positive
charge on the nucleus
Figure 2-12
The α-particle experiment

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 Rutherford
protons 1919

James Chadwick
neutrons 1932

Figure 2-13
The nuclear atom – illustrated by the helium atom

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Slide 16 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
 Scale of Atoms

The heaviest atom has a mass of only 4.8 x 10-22 g

and a diameter of only 5 x 10-10 m.
Useful units:

• 1 amu (atomic mass unit) = 1.66054 x 10-24 kg

• 1 pm (picometer) = 1 x 10-12 m
• 1 Å (Angstrom) = 1 x 10-10 m = 100 pm = 1 x 10-8 cm

Biggest atom is 240 amu and is 50 Å across.

Typical C-C bond length 154 pm (1.54 Å)
Molecular models are 1 Å /inch or about 0.4 Å /cm

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2-4 Chemical Elements

 To represent a particular atom we use symbolism:

A= mass number Z = atomic number

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 Figure 2-14
A mass spectrometer and a mass spectrum

Slide 19 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

 2-5 Atomic Mass

Weighted Average Equation (2.3)

Atomic Mass of an Element

fractional atomic fractional atomic

= abundance x mass of + abundance x mass of + ……
of isotope 1 isotope 1 of isotope 2 isotope 2

Aave = x1 x A1 + x2 x A2 + …… xn x An

where x 1 + x2+ …..+ xn

= 1.0
Slide 20 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
 The Periodic Table

Read atomic masses.

Read the ions formed by main group elements.
Read the electron configuration.
Learn trends in physical and chemical properties.

We will discuss these in detail in Chapter 9.

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Alkali Metals The Periodic table Noble Gases

Alkaline Earths Halogens Main Group

Transition Metals

Main Group Lanthanides and Actinides

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 2-7 The Concept of the Mole and the
Avogadro Constant

Physically counting atoms is impossible.

We must be able to relate measured mass to
numbers of atoms.

buying nails by the pound or kilogram.

using atoms by the gram

Slide 23 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

 Avogadro constant, NA

• The mole is an amount of substance that

contains the same number of elementary
entities as there are carbon-12 atoms in
exactly 12 g of carbon-12.

NA = 6.02214179 x 1023 mol-1

Slide 24 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

 Figure 2-17
One mole of an element

Slide 25 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

 Molar Mass

The molar mass, M, is the mass of one mole

of a substance.

M (g/mol 12C) = A (g/atom 12C) x NA (atoms 12C /mol 12C)

Slide 26 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

 End of Chapter Questions

Problem solving is an integral part of the

learning process.
You must exercise your skills just like a
varsity athlete does.
Use your coaches, they can help you with
skills for success.

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