Chapter 5

Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

Current and Current Density

Current

dQ
I motion of positive charges
dt

Current Desnsity is a vector represented by

J

∆I J⋅ ∆S

⌠
I  Jdot dS
⌡
 Current and Current Density
Incremental of Charge

∆Q ρ v ⋅ ∆S⋅ ∆L

∆Q ∆x
∆I ρ v ⋅ ∆S⋅
∆t ∆t

taking the limit with respect to time

∆I ρ v ⋅ ∆S⋅ v x vx represents the x component of the velocity

In terms of current density

Jx ρ v⋅ vx in general J ρ v⋅ v
Example D5.1

Given the vecotr density J, calculate the current density at P

π
ρ := 3 φ := 30⋅ z := 2
180

 10⋅ ρ 2⋅ z 
   180
(J ρ , φ, z) :=  2 J( ρ , φ, z) =  −9 
−4⋅ ρ ⋅ cos ( φ)  
   0 
 0 

Determine the total current flowing outward through the cirrcular band

ρ := 3 0 < φ < 2⋅ π 2 < z < 2.8

2.8 2.π
⌠ ⌠
   3
J( ρ , φ, z) ⋅  0  dφ dz
3
I :=   I = 3.257× 10
   

⌡

⌡  0
2 0
Continuity of Current

Total current through the closed surface

⌠ −dQi
I  Jdot dS ⌠
⌡ dt ⌠  −dρ v
 ( del⋅ J) dv  dv
Using the divergence theorem ⌡  dt
⌡
vol vol
⌠ ⌠
I  Jdot dS  ( del⋅ J) dv
⌡ ⌡
−dρ v
S vol ( del⋅ J) ⋅ ∆v − ⋅ ∆v
dt
⌠ −d ⌠
 ( del⋅ J) dv ⋅  ρ v dv
⌡ dt  ⌡ −dρ v
vol vol del⋅ J
dt

This equation indicates that the current diverging from a small volume per
unit volume is equal to the time rate of decrease of charge per unit
volume at every point
Conductors, Dielectrics, Semiconductors

The Energy Band Structure in Three Different Types of Materials at 0K

a) The conductor exhibits no energy gap between the valence and conduction bands.
b) The Insulator shows a large energy gap
c) The semiconductor has only a small energy gap
Conductors, Dielectrics, Semiconductors

Table 2.1 Electrical Classification of

Solid Materials

Materials Resistivity (Ω -cm)

Insulators 105 < ρ < 
Semiconductors 10-3 < ρ < 105
Conductors ρ < 10-3
Metallic Conductors
Force in experienced by an electron in a E field

F −e⋅ E

Drift velocity

vd µe⋅ E µe mobility of an electron

J −ρ e⋅ µe⋅ E ρe free electron charge density (negative value)

J σ⋅ E σ conductivity (sigma) measured in siemens / m

In a conductor, electric current can flow freely, in an insulator it cannot. Metals such as copper typify
conductors, while most non-metallic solids are said to be good insulators, having extremely high resistance
to the flow of charge through them. "Conductor" implies that the outer electrons of the atoms are loosely
bound and free to move through the material. Most atoms hold on to their electrons tightly and are
insulators. In copper, the valence electrons are essentially free and strongly repel each other. Any external
influence which moves one of them will cause a repulsion of other electrons which propagates, "domino
fashion" through the conductor
Metallic Conductors

Assume that J and E are uniform I V

J σ⋅ E σ⋅
S L

⌠
I  J⋅ del dS J⋅ S L
V ⋅I V I⋅ R
⌡ σ⋅ S
b
b b ⌠
⌠ ⌠ L − E⋅ del dL
Vab − E⋅ del dL −E⋅  1 dL −E⋅ Lba E⋅ Lab R Vab ⌡
⌡ ⌡ σ⋅ S a
a a R
I ⌠
 σ⋅ E⋅ del dS
⌡
or V E⋅ L
Conductor Properties and Boundary Conditions

Et ⋅∆w −
⌠ 1 
ENatb ⋅ ⋅∆
h + ENata ⋅∆h 0 ∆h 0 ∆w finite
 E⋅del dL  2 
⌡
Et ⋅w 0 Et 0

⌠
 S⋅ del dS Q
⌡
⌠ ⌠ ⌠
 top dS +  bottom dS +  sides dS Q
⌡ ⌡ ⌡

DN⋅ ∆S Q ρ S⋅ ∆S DN ρS
E=0 within the conductor
Boundary Conditions
Conductor-free space 1 – The static electric field intensity inside a
boundary in electrostatic conductor is zero
2 – The static electric field at the surface of a
Dt Et 0 conductor is everywhere directed normal to that
surface
DN ε0⋅ EN ρS
3 – The conductor surface is an equipotential
surface
The Method of Images
The Method of Images
The Method of Images
Semiconductors

Conductivity is a function of both hole and electron concentrations and mobility

σ −ρ e⋅ µ e + ρ h ⋅ µ h
Conductors, Dielectrics, Semiconductors
Semiconductor Materials

Semiconductor Bandgap Energy EG (eV)

Carbon (Diamond) 5.47
Silicon 1.12
Germanium 0.66
Tin 0.082
Gallium Arsenide 1.42
Indium Phosphide 1.35
Boron Nitride 7.50
Silicon Carbide 3.00
Cadmium Selenide 1.70
Conductors, Dielectrics, Semiconductors

IIIA IVA VA VIA

10.811 12.01115 14.0067 15.9994

5 6 7 8
B C N O
Boron C a rbon Nitrogen O xygen
26.9815 28.086 30.9738 32.064
13 14 15 16
Al Si P S
IIB A luminum Silic on Pho spho rus Sulfur
65.37 69.72 72.59 74.922 78.96
30 31 32 33 34
Zn Ga Ge As Se
Zinc G allium G e rma nium A rsenic Selenium
112.40 114.82 118.69 121.75 127.60
48 49 50 51 52
Cd In Sn Sb Te
Cadmium Indium Tin A ntimony Tellurium
200.59 204.37 207.19 208.980 (210)
80 81 82 83 84
Hg Ti Pb Bi Po
Merc ury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium

Portionof thePeriodicTableIncludingtheMost
Im portant Semiconductor Elements
Conductors, Dielectrics, Semiconductors

Si Si Si

Si Si Si

Si Si Si
wi
th
an
ele
ctr
on
Covalent bond filled

Two­dimensional silicon lattice with shared covalent bonds.  At temperatures approaching 0 K, all bonds are 
filled, and the outer shells of the silicon atoms are completely full.
Conductors, Dielectrics, Semiconductors

Si Si Si

Free Electron
(­q)

Hole 
(+q)

Si Si Si

Si Si Si

An electron­hole pair is generated whenever a covalent bond is broken 
 
Conductors, Dielectrics, Semiconductors

Si Si Si

­ q
+ q

Si P Si

Si Si Si

A
nex
trae
lec
tro
nisa
vaila
blefro
m ap
hos
p ho
rusd
onor
a
tom
Conductors, Dielectrics, Semiconductors

Si Si Si

Si B Si

Vacancy

Si Si Si

Covalent bond vacancy from boron acceptor atom

Semiconductors

A silicon crystal is somewhat different from an insulator because at any

temperature above absolute zero temperature, there is a finite probability that an
electron in the lattice will be knocked loose from its position, leaving behind an
electron deficiency called a "hole".

If a voltage is applied, then both the electron and the hole can contribute to a small
current flow. The term intrinsic here distinguishes between the properties of pure
"intrinsic" silicon and the dramatically different properties of doped n-type or p-type
semiconductors.
The Nature of Dielectric Materials

Most solid materials are classified as insulators because they offer very
large resistance to the flow of electric current. Metals are classified as
conductors because their outer electrons are not tightly bound, but in most
materials even the outermost electrons are so tightly bound that there is
essentially zero electron flow through them with ordinary voltages. Some
materials are particularly good insulators and can be characterized by their
high resistivities:

Resistivity (ohm) -Dielectric in an electric field can be viewed as a

free-space arrangement of microscopic electric
Glass 10^12
dipoles which are composed of positive and
Mica 9 x 10^13 negative charges whose centers do not quite
Quartz (fused) 5 x 10^16 coincide.
Not free charges - They bound charges
They are sources of electrostatic fields
Model – Polarization P and Permittivity
Resistivity (ohm)
Copper 1.7 x 10^-8
The Nature of Dielectric Materials

If a material contains polar molecules, they will generally be in random orientations

when no electric field is applied. An applied electric field will polarize the material
by orienting the dipole moments of polar molecules. This decreases the effective
electric field between the plates and will increase the capacitance of the parallel
plate structure. The dielectric must be a good electric insulator so as to minimize
any DC leakage current through a capacitor.

Polar molecules have a permanent displacement existing between the centers of

gravity of the positive and negative charges, and each pair of charges acts as a
dipole. Dipoles are oriented randomly.

A non-polar molecule does not have this dipole arrangement until a field is applied.

A dipole may be described by its dipole moment p

p = Qd where d is the vector from the negative to the positive charge.

p are in coulomb-meters
P = Polarization
n∆v
1
∑
n∆v
⋅
p total ∑ pi P lim
∆v → 0 ∆v
pi
i=1 i=1
The Nature of Dielectric Materials

ASTM Unit Teflon® Teflon® Teflon® Tefzel®

Standard PTFE FEP PFA
Powder
Paste
Disper.

Electrical Properties
Dielectric Constant D150 1 MHz 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.6

Dissipation Factor D150 1MHz <0.0001 0.0006 0.0001 0.007

Arc Resistance D495 sec >300 >300 >180 122

Volume Resistivity D257 ohm·cm >1018 >1018 >1018 >1017

Surface Resistivity D257 ohm·sq >1018 >1016 >1017 >1015

The Nature of Dielectric Materials Electrical Properties of Kapton®
Type HN Polyimide Film

Property Value--Film Thickness, mil (µm)

0.30 0.50 1.00 2.00 3.00 5.00

Property (7.6) (12.7)* (25.4)* (50.8)* (76.2)* (127)*

Dielectric Strength, 3,000 3,000 6,000 5,000 4,500 3,000

AC V/mil (kV/mm), (118) (118) (236) (197) (177) (118)
min.

Volume Resistivity, 1012 1012 1012 1012 1012 1012

ohm-cm at 200°C
(392°F), min.

Dielectric Constant at 4.0 4.0 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.9

1 kHz, max.

Dissipation Factor at 0.0070 0.0050 0.0036 0.0036 0.0036 0.0036

1 kHz, max.
The Nature of Dielectric Materials

net total charge which crosses the elemental surface in an upward direction

∆Qb nQd⋅ ∆S

∆Qb P⋅ ∆S

⌠
Qb − Pdot dS
⌡

Total enclosed charges Q = free charges

⌠
QT  ε ⋅ Edot dS QT Qb + Q
 0
⌡

⌠
Q QT − Qb 
 ( ε0⋅ E + P) dot dS
⌡

D ε0⋅ E + P
Boundary Conditions For Perfect Dielectric Materials

⌠
 E⋅ del dL
⌡

Etan1⋅∆w −Etan2⋅∆w 0 DN1⋅∆S −DN2 ⋅∆S ∆Q ρS⋅∆S

Etan1 Etan2
DN1 −DN2 ρS

If the tangential electric field intensity is continous

In perfect dielectrics ρS 0
across the boundary, then tangential D is discontinuous
DN1 DN2
Dtan1 Dtan2
Etan1 which follows that ε1⋅EN1 ε2⋅EN2
ε1 ε2
Normal of D is continous, normal of E is discontinous

Dtan1 ε1
Dtan2 ε2
Boundary Conditions For Perfect Dielectric Materials
The Nature of Dielectric Materials
Capacitance

Capacitance of two conductor systems as

the ratio of the magnitude of the total
charge on either conductor to the ratio of
the potential difference between
conductors

Q the capacitance is independent of the

C potential and the total charge, for their
V0
ratio constant

C = measured in farads (F) - one coulomb per volt

⌠
 εEdot dS
⌡
C
pos
⌠
− Edot dL
⌡
neg
Capacitance

0
lower ⌠ ρS ρS
⌠ 
V0 − Edot dL − dz ⋅d
⌡  ε ε
upper ⌡
d

Q ρ S⋅ S

Q ε⋅ S
C
V0 d
Several Capacitance Examples
ρL
Coaxial Cable Vab ⋅ ln
b
 pote ntial differenc e between points
2⋅ π ⋅ ε 0  a ρ = a andρ = b (equ ation 11 s ec . 4.3

2⋅ π ⋅ ε ⋅ L
C
ln
b

 a

Two concentric spheres 4⋅ π ⋅ ε

⋅ 
Q 1 1 Q
Vab −  C
4⋅ π ⋅ ε a b Vab 1
−
1
a b

Parallel-plate capacitor – two dielectrics

1
C
1 1
+
C1 C2
Capacitance of A Two-Wire Line

ρL  R0 
V ⋅ ln 
2⋅ π⋅ ε  R 

ρL   R10  R20  ρL  R10⋅ R2

V ⋅  ln
 − ln R  ⋅ ln 
2⋅ π⋅ ε   R1  2⋅ π⋅ ε R20⋅ R2
 2   

ρ L⋅ L 2⋅ π⋅ ε⋅ L
C
V  2
h −b
2
ln h + 
 b 
Coil Modeling - Parameter Computation

ε 0ε r A
C=
d

d
c2 b2 − c 2
ri = Ri (1 + 2
), β =
24 Ri 12
Simplified Frequency Model of Coil
Capacitance
Capacitance – Zero-Potential Conducting Plane
and Conducting Cylinder