Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
RAGHUNADH
Assistant Professor, Dept. of ECE
NIT, Warangal – 506004.
raghu@nitw.ac.in
INTRODUCTION
TO
MOBILE & CELLULAR
COMMUNICATIONS
Wireless system
What is a wireless system?
Cars with
3.Business
Sales Database consistency,
wireless LAN hot spots at
supermarkets, gas stations,
laptop connections via
LAN,DSL…
4.Infotainment
Up-to-date info over wireless net
i. Travel guide
ii. Cash payment
iii. Adhoc gaming networks
5. Location Dependent Services
Mobile computing and WLANs applications need to
know the mobile unit location.
a. Follow on Services Call forwarding, e-mail,
multimedia conferencing.
b. Location aware Services Printing service from a
hotel control room.
c. Privacy Time dependent access/forwarding at
the will & wish of user
d. Info. Services Travel guide
e. Support services Caching of data on mobile
device via a wireless net access.
Wi-Fi
Stands for “Wireless Fidelity”
High-bandwidth category of wireless
communications
Short range (300-1600ft)
Used to connect laptops, PDAs, and even
workstations
On the basis of
“any time, any where, any one, any
service”
Information Services:
Voice, Video, Text, Fax ,Image, Data, Files
Technological Trends
Cellular
Microwave
Extremely Very Low Medium High Very Ultra Super Infrared Visible Ultra- X-Rays
Low Low High High High Light violet
GPRS
CDMA
IEEE802.11
WAN HyperLan Bluetooth
WAN-MAN
PAN
MAN
MAN-LAN
LAN-PAN
Pico-Cell
IP-based backbone
Vertical Handover
Horizontal Handover
Inter-Working
The
Interne
Satellite FES
Context-aware information
Centre
IP backbone
Broadcast Networks
(DAB, DVB-T)
GSM /
GPRS
UMTS
IP-based
micro-mobility Wireless
LANs
ENABLING CONCEPTS
FOR
MOBILE & PERSONAL
COMMUNICATIONS.
These concepts enable us to provide Universal PCS
with standardized systems & services at local,
regional, national and international levels.
They are :
BS MS BS BS
Cellular Advantages:
• Minimal Blocking
4. Data Links
Mobile Station : (MS)
MS BS Signaling Channel
Location updating , call set up.
Paging response , user data
BS MS Signaling Channel
Operating parameters (identities)
Paging call, location updating, and control.
Location Updating
MS always monitors overhead information
broadcast by network on the signaling
channel
• MS updates the operating parameters as and when
necessary
• MS Checks Location information (area identity)
broadcast by new cell, if it is in new cell location.
• MS advices the network about its new location
• Then network updates its location registers.
• This location information is used to route / switch the
incoming calls or determining paging broadcast area
for MS.
Mobile station initialization:
2G 2.5G
1G digital
analog digital (analog)
- voice + data
- voice only - voice (data)
- flexible
- inflexible - inflexible
- optimised
- not optimised - optimised
- transparent
- very transparent - transparent
3G 3.5G 4G
digital digital digital/analog?
- data + voice - more data (IP) - even more data
- very flexible - very flexible - very flexible
- ‘optimisable’ - ‘optimisable’ - ‘optimisable’
- not transparent - not transparent - transparent
GSM
Global System for Mobile
Communications
Digital cellular system for voice, fax, data
>200 million customers
>320 networks
137 countries
Annual growth rate of 100% - 200%
4 new customers every second
with GSM
no GSM
Wireless Networks
Motivated by people-on-the-go
- PCs availability, Internet usage,
Mobile life
Aimed is to establish wide-area
voice data communications
Includes mobile systems (cellular
telecommunication systems)
Wireless Network Area Definitions
Access
point
Fixed Fixed
Workstation Workstation
Mobile Mobile
Agent Agent
Wired Network
Workstation
PDA Access Access
point point
Printer
Fixed
Workstation
DBMS
WAN:
everywhere outside of the
hotspots, where wireless
GPRS, 3G – UMTS
Wide Area Internet connection are
provided
< 400 Kb/s – xx Mls, Kms
MAN:
Building to Building
Metropolitan Area connection
MMDS; LMDS; 802.16
10M > 155 Mb/s - Kms
LAN:
Local Area collection of secure “hot spot”
connections, providing
802.11b; 802.11a; 802.11g broadband access to the
2M > 54Mb/s – > 300 ft, 100 m Internet
Personal Area
Bluetooth; PAN:
collection of secure
< 800 Kb/s – < 30 ft, 10 m connections between devices
in a
“very” local area
Convergence
Convergence of Cellular Mobile Networks and WLANs
Benefits
For cellular mobile operators
Higher bandwidths.
Lower cost of networks and equipment.
The use of licence-exempt spectrum.
Higher capacity and QoS enhancement.
Higher revenue.
For users
Access to broadband multimedia services with lower
4. Intelligence.
The Internet is the driver
World Internet users (1999 – 2004)
Million 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Japan 23 32 38 43 47 50
• GSM • CDMA/cdmaOne/IS-95A
Digital • CDPD • TDMA / IS-136
(2G) • PDC
4G • Undefined
Technology Max Introductio Advantages Dis- Bottomline
Speed n advantage
s
GPRS 171.2Kbps 2001 Packet data Data rates Will be most
for GSM world may successful
disappoint technology
through
2005
4G Research
V E-Mail 4.2 sec in 2G to 0.002s in 4G
Targets
Movie Download 926 hours in 2G to
1minute in 4G
N
TIO
OLU
V
d
E ms
E
v e
CDMA 1X ,
3G yste
vol
EDGE
CD
S
M
A2
P 0 00
,W
CD
M 802.11a,g
1X A
EV
1X
-D
V W-LAN
EV
S 802.11b
DO
90° Ф = m sinФ
Phase
Zero phase
f
) Ф
I = m cosФ
ANTENNAS:
Energy Translators /Couplers from TX to CH.
Hence Radiation pattern.
Ideal Isotropic: Equal power in all directions
y
DIRECTIONAL ANTENNA: x z
3 sector 8 sector
SIGNAL Onlyone direction of
PROPAGATION transmission unlike wired
transmission
Interference range
SIGNAL IMPAIRMENTS
Free space Loss or Los loss
Diffraction :
Similar to scattering Radio waves get deflected at
edges signals become weak
Multi Path Effects :
Delay Spread
POWER
ISI Fading –
Short term
t
Long term
MULTIPLE ACCESS OR MULTIPLEXING :
Means of combining several user signals onto a
common channel
Multiple users access and share a common channel
with no interference (Hope fully)
Simple ex :1. Athletic tracks / Swimming lanes
2. Many cars/Buses/Trucks share a
multiple lane road due to separation
of lanes
Space Division Multiplexing
However, needs a special identification and control
mechanism for proper MUX & DEMUX.
For Wireless Communication,4 types of Multiplexing
SPACE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING :
Assignment of space to each communication
channel i.e., actually a source signal, with minimum
interference and a maximum medium utilization
Assume 3D space represented as shown
CH k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
code c c
time t t
s1 frequency s2 s3 f
Κ
f
Coverage Space is represented via circles
Channels K1, K2, K3 can be mapped into three spaces S1,
S2, S3 with clear separation and no overlap
What about K4, K5, K6 ?
Analogous to road traffic separate lanes
Analog fixed Telephone Network
separate wire pair
/ local loop
For wireless, SDM implies , a separate sender for
each channel with wide space separations.
ex: FM radio stations.
• Problems arise if two or more channels occupy the
same space
FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
(FDM / FDMA)
• Subdivision of frequency dimension into several
non-overlapping frequency bounds or slots.
c • Each channel Ki is allotted its
own (dedicated) band
f
• Sender uses this band
S1 S2 S3 continuously
• Guard spaces do exist for no
interferences.
t Ex:- Am radio stations
• Receivers must TUNE into the specific senders.
• Draw backs : Tremendous wasted frequency as user may not
transmit all the time (usually less than 1Hr per day).
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING TDM(A)
• A channel Ki is given whole bandwidth, but only for
a fixed period of time
• Time dimension is partitioned into several Time
slots
• Each channel is allocated one Time slot.
c
t1
S1
t2 f
S2
t3 • Needs precise
S. 3
. synchronizatio
.
n in timings for
t TX or Rx.
HYBRID-FTDMA:
• A channel Ki use a certain frequency band fi for only a
certain amount of time ti
• More robust against frequency selective
interference / jamming.
• Better protection against Tapping / Intruder.
• But needs coordination between senders.
c
t
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING : CDM(A)
Analog Base
band signal
Digital
Data Digital Analog
Modulation Modulation
101101001
Radio
Carrier
SPREAD SPECTRUM MODULATION
Developed for secured communication
Means of transmitting a data sequence that
occupies larger bandwidth than the original base
hand
Spreading of bandwidth is through the use of a
code that is independent of data
Chief Advantages: 1. Resistance to narrow
band interference or
jamming
2. Multiple Access
Communication.
Purposeful bandwidth spread to make the signal to possess
noise like appearance so as to blend into the back ground
noise.
Power P P P
f f f
i) ii ) iii )
P P
f f
iv ) v)
STEP i) Narrow band user input data
ii) Tx Spreads the signal into a wide band
signal. But energy is same as original.
iii) A Wide band interference and
Narrowband interference get added
to wide band signal during transmission
iv) Receiver dispreads the signal into
narrowband. Thus narrow band
interference gets spread and wide band
interference gets left as it is.
v) Receiver uses a BPF to band limit the
user signal to original bandwidth and yield
high SNR
MOBILE RADIO SIGNAL PROPAGATION &
ENVIRONMENT
Mobile radio signals propagating through a
communication medium are subjected to many
changes or modifications.
Propagation path loss :-
- Due to beam Divergence (Free space Loss)
- Proportional to 1/d2
Terrestrial Losses :-
Terrain Dependent (Path Loss)
- Texture, roughness of terrain tends
to dissipate propagated energy.
• Scattering and Multipath effects :
- Signal gets scattered at ≤ λ obstacle points
and travel in multipaths.
- Result is different delay spreads of signal.
- Thus severe FADING of the received signal
(sum total of multipath signals).
- Because of low mobile antenna height and
near ground communication.
• Instantaneous Signal Strength :
S(t)
MS Stationary
avg Pr
m(t)
Local mean
MS moving r(t)
Time or
distance
• Depends on whether Mobile station (MS) is in
movement or stationary.
θ( )θ
Ф • Therefore changes in the
propagation as a result of
specular Reflection, Diffuse
T
Reflection and Diffraction.
Specular Reflection from smooth flat and
slopy terrains :
• Occurs when radio waves encounter a smooth
interface between two dissimilar media and linear
dimension of interface is larger than λ
Ex: Mirror reflection defined by Snell's law.
Elevation
• Reflected wave at point θ
h1 due to reflection of incident
wave from BS antenna T
h1 can be thought of as
▼
originated from a fictitious
image antenna TI and
passed through the surface
Distance without refraction.
Diffuse Reflection:
• Occurs when radio waves encounter a rough
textured surface with roughness of order of λ
• Unlike specular reflection, this scatters energy and
focus a divergent radio path.
1
hp <
2 1 1
( + )
λ d1 d2
BS LOS
€
MS
LOS ▼
h1 LOS h2
d1 d2
• Hygen’s principle explains this.
• In tensing of signals is smaller than that of
specular reflected wave
• Both these reflections correspond to LOS
propagation of reflected signals.
Diffraction:
• Occurs when the propagation path is obstructed by
the features of an intervening terrain between two
antennas.
•Thus out of sight propagation.
• Attenuation depends on
Elevation
whether obstruction extends
through the path or protrudes
into LOS path.
BS • Knife edge diffraction modals
€
h1 are used.
hp
▼
l h2
Distance
Path Loss : Propagation frequency distance
►
Path Loss
►
Ә1 (
100m ▼
► 3m
Ә2 (
> 2 km
-1 S
ψ(t) = Tan
R
Case 3 : MS Moving – a) Scatters are absent
s0(t) b) only one scatterer present
▼ v c) Many scatterers present
θ near MS.
X(t)
Thus concept of standing waves is applied to radio
signals to understand the multipath effects.
A resultant signal due to an incident signal and a
perfect scatterer reflected signal, reaching a mobile
of speed V is
j [ ω0 t + φ0 - β vt] [ j ( ω0 t + φ0 + β vt - ω0 τ ) ]
s(t) = a0 e - a0 e
The envelope of S(t) looks like a standing wave pattern.
2
(
=
τ 0
s
2
4
2
t
(
β
)
v
a
-
∴ Fading Frequency →
2
i
0
)
n
t
2V/λ
Scatterers (Houses)
As a mobile unit
proceeds in a
▼ street, it is passing
v through an avenue
of scatterers as
shown.
Highest Doppler Frequency fd is
v v
fm = max ( fd ) = max ( cosθ ) =
λ λ
W(f)
v
fd
2
λ
Why 800 MHz Band?
ITU - T and FCC chose 800 MHz initially because.
- Severe spectral limitations at lower frequency
Bands
- Maritime (ship) mobile service at 160 MHz
- Fixed station services from 30 to 100 MHz
- FM and VHF/UHF TV Bands from 80-600 MHz
- No Mobile radio transmission beyond 10 GHz
due to propagation path loss, multipath fading and
rain loss.
- 800 MHz allocated to educational TV Channels
was heavily under utilized.
Even though not an ideal frequency for mobile radio,
the 800 MHz band demonstrated the feasibility.
History of 800 MHz spectrum:
1958 -Bell lab proposal for 75 MHz system at 800
MHz.
1974 -FCC allocated 40 MHz spectrum for one
cellular operator licensed per market area.
1980 -FCC revised its policy and introduced
competition with two licensed carriers per
service area of course this resulted in trunk
efficiency degradation
FCC assigned frequencies in 20 MHz groups, as
η%
30 5 ca
reer/
mark
e t
20
2 career/m
10 arket
0 1 2 5 10Blocking30
probability %
UNIQUENESS OF MOBILE
RADIO ENVIRONMENT
Propagation path loss increases with
- Frequency
- distance θ1 elevation angle
θ2 incident angle
h
▼
Dire
ct path
Re
fle
30 – 100 m cte
d pa
θ1( ▼
th
θ2 (
2 km d
Cell antenna height: 30
-100 m
Mobile antenna height:
Received carrier Power C =α R3m -4
Difference in Powers C1 R2 - 4
=( )
C2 R1
R1
∆ C = C2 - C1 in dB = 40 log
R2
General Rule
=>40 dB/dec path loss
Δc = - 40dB
R1
Free Space- c α R -2 ∆C = 20 log = 20 dB/dec
R2
R1
∆C = 40 log = 40 dB/dec
Mobile radio CH- c α R-4 R2
Received signal fading levels:
10 dB above and 30 dB below mean.
- R2
CDF P(R) = R e
− (R) = βν × η
lcr Level crossing rate η R
2π
afd Average fading duration - 2π -
t (R) = × tR
βν
PATH LOSS MODEL
• Different, often complicated, models are used for different environments.
L= Pr =K 1
f dα
2
Pt
B≤ or d ≤
( )
dα NoSNRo NoBSNRo
SHADOW FADING
• The received signal is shadowed by obstructions such as
hills and buildings.
• This results in variations in the local mean received
signal power,
Pr (dB) = Pr (dB) + Gs
• Implications
– nonuniform coverage
– increases the required transmit power
First order statistics of Fading => Average power
CDF, BER
∴ independent of time
_
P(y ≤ L) = 1− e −L L
NOISE LEVEL IN CELLULAR BANDS:
Ni + (Na G)
AMPLIFIER NOISE NF =
KTB
DELAY SPREAD
• Base station sends an impulse signal to the mobile station.
error
s0(t) = a0 s(t)
BS a0
Antenna 1 3
▼
t
τ 1 τ2 τ3 τ4 t
4
▼
a0
N>>4
t
∆
N-scatter case delay spread
• Received impulse signal is
jωt
= E(t) e
• As number of scatterers (N) increases, the received impulse
sequence becomes a continuous signal pulse, with a pulse
length Δ (called DELAY SPREAD).
• Delay envelopes contain multiple peaks.
• Shortest path signal need not necessarily produce highest
peak as the scatterer could be absorb in nature.
• Mean delay time d is the first moment or average.
∞
d =∫t E(t) dt
0
• Standard deviation or delay spread Δ is
t=0 → Leading edge of
∞
envelope E(t).
∆ = ∫ t E(t)dt - d
2 2 2
0
DELAY SPREAD
FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERPRETATION
H(f)
Bs = signal bandwidth ≈ 1/T
Bs
1 f
2τ
• Implications
– signal amplitude and phase decorrelates after a
time period ~ 1/fD
8C32810.87-Cimini-7/98
COHERENCE BANDWIDTH:
• Bandwidth in which either the amplitudes or the phases of
two received signals have high degree of similarity or
correlated.
• Different delays in two fading signals that are closely spaced
in frequency can cause the two signals to become correlated.
• The frequency spacing that allows this condition depends on
the delay spread Δ .
• This frequency interval is called coherence or correlation
Bandwidth Bc.
E(t)
Specular component
Scattered component
t
d dt Δ
Channel input response model
Correlation C(f)
function
Scattered component
f
Coherence bandwidth
1 1
Bc = or
Bc ≈
2Π Δ AM 8Δ
• A typical definition of Bc → 1 FM
= PM
4ΠΔ
NOISE IN MOBILE RADIO CHANNEL:
THERMAL NOISE
WIDEBRAND NARROWBAND
URBAN SUBURBAN
EXTERNAL NOISE
UR
SU BA
B N
UR
RU BA
RA N
L INTERNAL
RECEIVER
GA
0 RUR
AL Q
LA
CT
UITE IC
SOLA
R
2 4 6 8 100 1000 105 109 f
-10 10
Q depends on
- cell size
- traffic conditions
Ex :- A BUSY Traffic area of 12 Km radius is divided into seven
2 Km cells. Assume a traffic situation with the busiest traffic cell
cover 4 freeways and 10 heavy traffic streets, with a total length
of
• 64 Km of TWO 8 lane roads
• 48 Km of Two 6 lane freeways
• 588 Km of forty three 4 lane roads
average spacing of cars is 10m during busy periods. One half
cars have phones and eight tenths of them make a call (ηc= 0.8)
during the busy hour.
Total length of roads = 64 + 48 + 588 = 700km
700km
Total number of cars = = 70000
10m
70,000
No.of calls in busy hour = × 0.8 = 28,000
2
MAX. No. of Frequency Channels per cell (N)
• depends on average calling time T
• depends on maximum calls per hour per cell Qi
• Determined from a plot or Table that shows
N,B and A
• Path Loss
• Shadow Fading
• Multipath
• Interference
• Infrared Versus Radio
BASE
STATION
• Cell Radius
1 3.14 100
3 28.3 900
10 314 10,000
25 1960 60,000
Typical cellular system layout and signal power distribution
are shown below. One can see the extensive signal
processing required to meet this.
MULTIPLE CEL LAYOUT:
The intracellular communication is duplex radio communication
between cell site (BS) and mobile unit (MS).
It needs a block allocation of frequencies for the control and
voice radio channels
Adjacent cells are not assigned the same frequency sets to avoid
the cochannel and adjacent channel interferences.
A handoff mechanism is required to automatically handover an
ongoing mobile call from one group to another frequency group
used in the next cell, as and when mobile unit is crossing cell
boundaries.
That means the cellular phone circuits must be frequency agile to
retune to a new frequency without call disconnects.
Basic cellular system architecture:
Cellular technology replaced a large coverage area mobile
radio system with many smaller cells, with a single BS
covering one particular cell only, as depicted in the
following figure.
The mobile and wireless devices used by subscribers are cell
phones, PDAs, palmtop/laptop PCs, web phones, etc.
All devices are referred to as Mobile Stations/Units (MS)
An MS can communicate only with its nearest BS of a cell in
which it is located ( i.e., belongs to).
Hence a BS (with a base transceiver) acts as a gateway
switch/router to the rest of the world, to any MS.
Every BS is controlled by one base station controller (BSC),
which in turn is connected to a mobile switching centre
(MSC) as shown in the following figure.
Several MSCs are interconnected to PSTN and ATM
backbone networks.
Cellular system architecture:
Home location register (HLR) and visitor location register
(VLR) are two database pointers that support mobility and
enable the use of same telephone number worldwide in
cellular communications.
HLR is located at the home MSC where MS is registered
VLR stores all the visiting mobiles in that particular area
Authentication centre (AUC) provides authentication for an
user attempting to make a cellular call.
This uses a 15 digit unique IMEI number programmed into
the MS at registration time and also stored in Equipment
identity register (EIR).
Network management and operations control are the
functions of the centers NMC and OMC.
BS and MS signaling and voice communication:
In any cellular system, four simplex radio channels are
needed to exchange synchronization and data between BS
and MS, as shown below.
The control channels are used to exchange control
messages like, authentication, subscriber identity, call
parameter negotiation, power control, etc.
Traffic (information) channels are used to transfer actual
data (voice/digital data)
Forward CH/ Downlink BS to MS transmissions
Reverse CH/ Uplink MS to BS transmissions
Control information shall be exchanged before the actual
data transfer can take place.
This necessitates the use of handshaking protocols for
cellular call setup, maintenance and disconnection.
Handshaking protocols in cellular call setup:
Simplified handshaking steps for a cellular call setup are
illustrated in following figure.
BS MS
1. Need to establish path
4. Start communication
MS BS
3. Use of frequency/timeslot/code
5. Start communication
Wireless LANs and PANs:
Mobile wireless networks find extensive use in different
facets of human life.
Already we are accustomed to line orientd to Local Area
Networks (LAN) and Wide Area Networks (WAN).
Ex:- Internet access, a value added service offered
by landline telephone network PSTN
Wireless LANs (WLAN) are being developed to provide
mobile access to data users.
Personal access Networks (PAN) cover very small areas
referred to as Pico cells using low powers in ISM band.
WLANs and PANs are becoming popular choice and
influence the wholesome home and office automation.
It is predicted that the percentage of nonvoice multimedia
data traffic is increasing heavily.
Also the digital voice technology is permitting the integration
of voice and nonvoice traffic into unified data stream.
Thus convergence of voice and nonvoice networks into a
single unified network supporting multimedia
communications is the order of the day.
Standards like IEEE 802.11, Bluetooth, HomeRF, HiperLAN
etc., are being developed and deployed worldwide.
Adhoc networks are being devised for commercial and
military applications.
MOBILE ADHOC NETWORKS (MANNET):
Adhoc networks are basically peer to peer multihop mobile
networks for freely moving mobile users and hosts
interconnected by nodes (mobile transceivers).
• Channel Borrowing
– a cell may borrow free channels from
neighboring cells
• Interference Reduction
(power adaptation, sectorization)
• Interference Cancellation
(smart antennas, multi user detection)
• Interference Avoidance
(dynamic resource allocation)
PHYSICAL LAYER ISSUES
0
-20
(dBm)
-40
-60
-80
-100
0 4 8 12 16 d
The chance that two deep fades
occur simultaneously is rare.
• The basic concept is to send the same
information over independently fading radio
• • •
α 1 α 2 α 3 α M
Combiner
Output