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Introduction
The role of a production engineer is to maximize oil and
gas production in a cost-effective manner.
Reservoir
This behavior can be justified by the fact that several quality lines
are crossed very rapidly by the isothermal reduction in pressure. At
the point where the liquid ceases to build up and begins to shrink
again, the reservoir goes from the retrograde region to a normal
vaporization region.
Wet-gas reservoir. A typical phase diagram of a wet gas is
shown in Figure 4.2d, where reservoir temperature is above the
cricondentherm of the hydrocarbon mixture. Because the
reservoir temperature exceeds the cricondentherm of the
hydrocarbon system, the reservoir fluid will always remain in
the vapor phase region as the reservoir is depleted isothermally,
along the vertical line A-B. As the produced gas flows to the
surface, however, the pressure and temperature of the gas will
decline. If the gas enters the two-phase region, a liquid phase
will condense out of the gas and be produced from the surface
separators.
This is caused by a sufficient decrease in the kinetic energy of
heavy molecules with temperature drop and their
subsequent
change liquid through the attractive forces between
to Wet-gas reservoirs are characterized by the
molecules.properties:
following
4. To read the tubing pressure gauge, the operator must open the
needle valve at the top of the Christmas tree. After reading
and recording the pressure, the operator may close the valve
again to protect the gauge.
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Dept. of Chemical Engineering,VIT University. December
2020
1. Steel-Linked chain
2. Wire rope
Mooring systems using taut fibre ropes have been designed and
installed to reduce mooring line length, mean- and low-frequency
platform offsets, fairlead tension and thus the total mooring
cost. (Still a lot of R&D in progress)
Dept. of Chemical Engineering,VIT University.
Mooring system design philosophy:
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Dept. of Chemical Engineering,VIT University. December
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Single Point Mooring (SPM):
point.
This connection point is located on the longitudinal centre line of
the vessel.
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Dept. of Chemical Engineering,VIT University. December
2020
In order to further reduce the environmental loading on the
mooring system from the surface vessel in extreme conditions, dis-
connectable turret mooring systems have also been developed.
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Dept. of Chemical Engineering,VIT University. December
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Functional requirements for the mooring system:
1. Offset limitations
2. Lifetime before replacement
3. Install-ability
4. Positioning ability
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Dept. of Chemical Engineering,VIT University. December
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Comparison of typical MODU and FPS mooring requirements:
MODU Floating Production
Design for 50-yr return period event. Designed for 100 yr return period
Anchors may fail in larger events. events.
Components designed for < 10 yr life Components designed for > 10 yr life
Fatigue analysis not required Fatigue analysis required
Life dynamics analysis not required Life dynamics analysis required
Missing line load case not required Missing line load case required
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Dept. of Chemical Engineering,VIT University. December
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Additional advantages include the
fact that there is reduced line
length and seabed footprint, as
depicted in the adjacent figure
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Dept. of Chemical Engineering,VIT University. December
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Stiffness:
Cases are known in which the rope has become so hot that the
polyester fibers have melted. This effect is of greater concern with
larger diameters or with certain lay types because dissipation of the
heat to the environment becomes more difficult.
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Dept. of Chemical Engineering,VIT University. December
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Fatigue:
The main reason for this decreased fatigue life is local axial
compression. Although the rope as a whole is under tension, some
components may go into compression, resulting in buckling and
damage of the fibres.
For a specific weather condition, the excitation forces caused by current are usually
assumed temporally constant, with spatial variation depending on the current profile and
direction with depth.
Wind loading is often taken as constant, at least, in initial design calculations, though
gusting can produce slowly varying responses.
Wave forces result in time-varying vessel motions in the 6 rigid body degrees of
freedom of
surge, sway, heave, roll, pitch and yaw.
Static design
Quasi Static DesignDynamic Design 30
Dept. of Chemical Engineering,VIT University. December
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Mooring Hardware Components
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Dept. of Chemical Engineering,VIT University. December
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Chain, wire or rope or their combination:
Chain and wire make up the strength members for the mooring system.
Stud-link chain and six-strand wire rope are the most common
mooring components for MODUS and other “temporary”
moorings.
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Dept. of Chemical Engineering,VIT University. December
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Wire rope:
6x7 class: 7 wires per strand, usually used for standing rigging.
Poor flexibility and fatigue life, excellent abrasion resistance.
Minimum drum diameter/rope diameter (D/d) = 42.
Fibre core (FC) ropes are not generally used for heavy duty marine
applications.
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Dept. of Chemical Engineering,VIT University. December
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Turrets:
The hull design in the turret region must reflect the fact that the amount of primary
steel is reduced here with an appropriate increase in the stress concentration.
Careful selection of turret position is important because of its influence on:
Vessel yaw
1. Exploration
2. Exploratory drilling
3. Development drilling
4. Production
6. Transportation
6. Energy economics.
7. Technological advent.
6. Pore pressure & temperature prediction. 12. Thermal shock (steep gradient, seasonal
change, fluid injection)
3. Drilling technologies.
4. Subsea technologies.
6. Hydrate formation.
2. Geology not cooperating (Like finding 100MMbl pockets when we used to find
500MMbl to 1bln barrel fields).
3. Cluster developments are expensive (five (100MMbl) fields do not equal one
(500MMbl) field).
4. Escalating rig rates were a leading indicator for the cost increases across the
sector for
deepwater developments.
5. Multi-component seismology
The offshore environment has a much more significant influence on drilling operations than
the onshore environment. It is necessary to carry out a suite of location surveys before starting
drilling operations in order to obtain data such as weather forecast during drilling operations,
bathymetric map around the location, current profiles, properties of the sea bottom soil,
topography of the sea bottom, and shallow geological hazards.
Wind and current measurements for several months would be carried out at a proposed
location about one year ago before operations.
2. 30 years ago, a deepwater operation implies exploring water depths up to 500 feet.
5. The challenges in ultra deep reserves are more complicated than exploring space.
Deep water refers to a depth greater than 1000ft (304.8m) and less than 5000ft (1524m).
Onshore
1. The scientific research well “SG-3” in Russia reached the depth of 12,263 m in 1988,
has had the depth record ever since.
2. The deepest exploration drilling for hydrocarbons was carried out to the depth
of 9583 m in the United States of America in 1974.
Offshore
1. A hydrocarbon exploration well was drilled offshore Brazil in 2965 m of water
in
2001.
2. A production well was completed with a subsea completion system offshore
Brazil
in 1852 m of water in 1998.
The offshore technology is steadily in progress towards deeper and deeper seas to search
and
Dept.of Chemical Engineering, VIT
produce subsea
25 July 2020 resources for the future welfare of the world.
University.
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As per SPE publication:
“Since 1947, the offshore industry has moved from the first platform out of sight of
land to safely producing in 7,000 feet (2,100 meters) of water and safely drilling in
10,000 feet (3,050 meters) of water.”
1. Because of the location remote from infrastructure, offshore rigs also carry
on board a number of service systems such as cementing, geophysical
logging,
and so on.
Moveable rigs are often used for exploratory purposes because they are much cheaper
to use than permanent platforms.
Once large deposits of hydrocarbons have been found, a permanent platform is built
to
allow their extraction.
Rigs that can be moved from place to place, allowing for drilling in
multiple locations (Mobile bottom- supported and floating rigs).
1. Drilling Barges.
2. Jack-Up Rigs.
Water depth less than 50 m and calm sea: Tender or Jack-up assisted platforms.
Water depth less than 400 m and mild sea: Self-contained platforms.
Water depth from 500 m to 3000 m: Drillships or Semisubmersible rigs with dynamic
positioning system.
Isolated area with icebergs: Drillships with dynamic positioning system.
Severe sea conditions: Semisubmersible rigs or new generation Drillships .
1. Drillships.
3. Spars
Positively buoyant structures which are tethered to the seabed and are heave-restrained are:
Example minimal
platform concepts
(LINX, MANTIS II and
TRIPOD) for
marginal field
2. Jacket Structures:
Fixed jacket structures (or template
structures) consist of tubular members
interconnected to form a three-dimensional
space frame
4. Jack-ups:
The jack-up barges are typically three-legged structures having a deck supported on their
legs. The legs are made of tubular truss members. The deck is typically buoyant.
5. Subsea Templates:
Subsea technology covers a wide range of offshore activities. Examples are subsea Xmas
trees, manifolds, templates, flowlines and risers, control systems, well fluid boosters,
multiphase pumping and metering, water separation, water injection, remote and diverless
connections, guideline-free installations, seabed electrical power distribution systems,
interventions, etc.
6. Subsea Pipelines:
Subsea pipelines are used to transfer oil from the production platforms to storage
facilities
or to the shore.
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University.
There are two basic leg configurations of jack-up rigs:
Submersible drilling rigs consist of upper and lower hulls connected by a network of
posts or beams. The drilling equipment and living quarters are installed on the
upper hull deck.
The lower hull has the buoyancy capacity to float and support the upper hull and
equipment. When water is pumped into the lower hull, the rig submerges and rests on
the seabed to provide a working place for the drilling.
Movement and drilling operations proceed as that of the jack-up rig. Most submerged rigs are
used only shallow waters of 8 to 10 meters.
Ship-shaped submersible rigs are also used, which are called swamp barges.
The tender anchored alongside the platform contains drilling equipment such as pumps and
tubular goods, and accommodation for personnel. A catwalk connects the platform and the
tender.
If weather conditions (wind, swell, and current) become too harsh, the drilling operations
must
be shut down due to excessive motion of the tender.
The tender platforms are used in Gulf of Guinea and the Persian Gulf waters where good
weather conditions prevail, resulting in low downtime less than 2% of total operation time.
Typically designed to have their lowest modal frequency to be below the wave energy, as
opposed to the fixed structures, which have a first modal frequency greater than the
frequency of wave energy.
1. Articulated Platforms:
One of the earliest compliant structures that started in relatively shallow waters and
slowly
moved into deep water.
The base below the universal joint on the seabed may be a gravity base or may be piled.
The tower is ballasted near the universal joint and has a large enough buoyancy tank at the
Dept.of Chemical Engineering, VIT
free
25 Julysurface
2020 to provide large restoring force (moment).
University.
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(II) Compliant Structures
2. Compliant Tower:
A compliant tower is similar to a traditional platform and extends from surface to the
sea bottom, and it is fairly transparent to waves.
Compliant tower is designed to flex with the forces of waves, wind and current. It uses less
steel than a conventional platform for the same water depth.
3. Guyed Tower:
A guyed tower is a slender structure made up of truss members, which rests on the
ocean floor and is held in place by a symmetric array of catenary guylines.
Most floating production units are neutrally buoyant structures (which allows six-degrees
of freedom) which are intended to cost-effectively produce and export oil and gas.
1. FPSO:
The FPSO generally refers to ship-shaped structures with several different
mooring
systems.
2. FPS
FPS refers to Floating Production systems which are finding application in
marginal
and deepwater field development.
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University.
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University.
(III) Floating Structures
3. Semi-Submersible Platform:
Semi-submersibles are
multi-legged floating
structures with a large
deck. These legs are
interconnected at the
bottom underwater
with horizontal
buoyant members
called pontoons.
Semisubmersible Platform
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University.
The advantages of semisubmersibles include the following:
1. Semisubmersibles can achieve good (small) motion response and, therefore, can be more
easily positioned over a well template for drilling.
2. Semisubmersibles allow for a large number of flexible risers because there is no
weathervaning system.
Disadvantages of semisubmersibles:
3. Pipeline infrastructure or other means is required to export produced oil.
4. Only a limited number of (rigid) risers can be supported because of the bulk of the
tensioning systems required.
5. Considering that most semisubmersible production systems are converted from drilling rigs,
the topsides weight capacity of a converted semisubmersible is usually limited.
4. Building schedules for semisubmersibles are usually longer than those for shipshaped
offshore structures.
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University.
Semisubmersible (As Drilling Rig)
Semi-submersibles are multi-legged floating structures with a large deck. These legs are
interconnected at the bottom underwater with horizontal buoyant members called pontoons.
Semisubmersibles have submerged pontoons (lower hulls) that are interconnected to the drilling
deck by vertical columns
The lower hulls provide improved stability for the vessel. Also, the open area between the
vertical columns of semisubmersibles provides a reduced area on which the environment can act.
In drilling operations, the lower hulls are submerged in the water about half-length of the column,
but do not rest on the seabed. When a semisubmersible moves to a new location, the lower hulls
float on the sea surface. Semisubmersible rigs are towed by boats, and some rigs have self-
propelled capacity.
On drilling site to keep the position, the anchors usually moor semisubmersibles, but the
dynamic positioning systems are used by new generation semisubmersibles.
Because of the reduced heave motion, the use of rigid risers (instead of flexible
risers),
which are self-buoyant, is easier.
Types of Spars:
1. Classic spar
2. Truss spar
3. Cell spar
The structure is vertically restrained precluding motions vertically (heave) and rotationally
(pitch and roll). It is compliant in the horizontal direction permitting lateral motions
(surge and sway).
It borrows from the concept of the tension leg platform and provides a cost-effective
marginal field application.
Moses MiniTLP appears to be a miniaturized TLP as the deck structure is supported by four
columns and the columns are connected by pontoons.
Motion characteristics of Moses is similar to that of SeaStar and, unlike the standard
TLPs, miniTLPs need to dedicate a large percentage of their displacement (35 - 45%) for
pretension.
• CO2
• H2S
Figure 5
• The gas contacts the solvent using
countercurrent flow in the
sour Rich
absorber.from the absorber bottom is flashed in
solvent
stages to near atmospheric pressure. This causes
the acid gas partial pressures to decrease, and
the acid gases evolve to the vapor phase and are
removed. The regenerated solvent is then
pumped back to the absorber.
• The example in Figure 5 (Typical flow schematic of a physical
solvent process) is a simple one where flashing is sufficient to
regenerate the solvent. Some solvents require a stripping
column just prior to the circulation pump. Some systems
require temperatures below ambient, thus refrigeration using
power turbines replaces the pressure reducing valves. These
turbines recover some of the power from the high pressure rich
solvent and thus decrease the utility power requirements for
refrigeration and circulation
• The majority of the physical solvent processes are proprietary
and are licensed by the company that developed the process.
Four typical processes are discussed below.
FLUOR SOLVENT PROCESS
C2)
Chemically non-reactive toward all natural
gas components
Low viscosity
Non-corrosive toward common metals
• These characteristics combine to yield a system that
has low heat and pumping requirements, is
relatively non-corrosive, and suffers only minimal
solvent losses, (less than 1 lb/MMSCF).
• Solvent temperatures below ambient are usually
used to increase solvent gas capacity, and,
therefore, decrease circulation rates. The expansion
of the rich solvent and flash gases through power
turbines can provide the required refrigeration.
Alternately, auxiliary refrigeration may be included
to further decrease circulation rates.
SULFINOL® PROCESS
• The Sulfinol®process, developed and licensed by
Shell, employs both a chemical and a physical
solvent for the removal of H2S, CO2, mercaptans,
and COS. The Sulfinol®solution is a mixture of
tetrahydrothiophene dioxide (Sulfolane®), which is
the physical solvent; a secondary amine,
diisopropanolamine (DIPA); and
water. previously discussed,is the DIPA
chemical range from 25 ,to 40
Typical solution concentrations
percent Sulfolane®, 40 to 55 percent DIPA, solvent.
and 20
to 30 percent water, depending on the conditions and
composition of the gas being treated.
• The presence the physical solvent,
of
Sulfolane®,to allows
compared systemshigher
based acid gas loadings
on amine only.
Typical loadings are 1.5 moles of acid gas per
mole of Sulfinol® solution. Higher acid gas
loadings, together with a lower energy of
regeneration, can result in lower capital and
energy costs per unit of acid gas removed as
compared to the ethanolamine processes.
• Other features of the Sulfinol® process include:
Essentially complete removal of mercaptans
High removal rate of COS
Lower foaming tendency
Lower corrosion rates
Ability to slip up to 50 percent CO2
• The process design of a Sulfinol® unit is similar to that of the
ethanolamines. However, the degradation of DIPA to oxazolidones
(DIPA-OX) usually necessitates the installation of a reclaimer for
their removal. As with the ethanolamine processes, aromatics and
heavy hydrocarbons in the feed gas should be removed prior to
contact with the Sulfinol® solution to minimize foaming.
• Although the relative merits of the Sulfinol® process as
compared to the ethanolamine processes appear to be
many, there are other factors which must be considered
before selecting the appropriate gas treating process for a
particular application. The payment of a licensing fee,
while not necessary for the ethanolamine processes, is
required for the Sulfinol® process. In addition, solvent
costs are generally higher for Sulfinol®than they are for
DEA. A less tangible disadvantage of the Sulfinol®
process, is that operators are more familiar with DEA and
the typical problems associated with this process. Finally,
in cases of low acid gas partial pressure, the advantage of
a lower circulation rate for the Sulfinol® process
diminishes as compared to DEA.
SELEXOL® PROCESS
• Selexol® is a process using the dimethylether of
polyethylene glycol as a solvent. It was developed by Allied
Chemical Company and is licensed by the Norton Company.
This process is selective toward removing sulfur compounds.
Levels of CO2 can be reduced by approximately 85 percent.
This process may be used economically when there are high
acid gas partial pressures and an absence of heavy ends in
the gas. The Selexol® process will not normally remove
enough CO2 to meet pipeline gas requirements. DIPA can be
added to the solution to remove CO2 down to pipeline
specifications. This process also removes water to less than
0.11 g/stdm3 (7 lb/MMSCF). This system then functions
much like the Sulfinol® process discussed earlier. The
addition of DIPA increases the relatively low stripper heat
duty.
RECTISOL PROCESS
process.
Figure 7
• This process involves mixing the H2S and
SO2 gases and then contacting them with a
liquid catalyst in a packed tower. Elemental
sulfur is recovered in the bottom of the tower. A
portion of this must be burned to produce the
SO2 required to remove the H2S. The most
important variable is the ratio of H2S to SO2 in
the feed. This is controlled by analyzer
equipment to maintain the system performance.
LO-CAT®/SULFEROX®
Figure 8
• The SulFerox® process uses the patented pipeline
contactor with co-current flow to minimize sulfur
plugging. The system has a high turndown
capability.
• These units are relatively small per unit of acid gas treated.
The technology of these processes has many potential
applications such as:
Treatment of sour produced or recycled CO2
Remote, single well streams
Tail Gas treatment
Offshore installations
• Although suitable for several applications, these processes have
disadvantages, which must be considered prior to selecting this type of
process for a specific gas treating application. Because CO2 is not
removed and only partial removal of mercaptans is achieved, gas
streams containing these components in excess of pipeline
specifications will require additional treatment. Gas streams above
49°C (120°F) can cause excessive chelated-iron degradation, resulting
in costly make-up rates. Certain components in gas streams, such as
HCN, can "poison" the solution, rendering it non-regenerable, while
other components, such as NH3, can raise the pH of the solution,
resulting in the precipitation of iron. The licensors should be contacted
to determine what incompatibilities between the solution and gas
components may exist.
DISTILLATION PROCESS
• The Ryan-Holmes distillation process uses cryogenic
distillation to remove acid gases from a gas stream.
This process is applied to remove CO2 for LPG
separation or where it is desired to produce CO2 at
high pressure for reservoir injection or other use.
The process consists of two, three or four
fractionating columns. The gas stream
is
dehydrated and then cooled with refrigeration and/or
first
pressure reduction.
• The three-column system is employed for gas streams
containing less than 50 percent CO2. The first column
operates at 3100 to 4500 kPa (450 to 650 psig) and separates
a high quality methane product in the overhead. Temperatures
in the overhead are from -18°C to -95°C(0°F to -140°F). The
second column operates at a slightly lower pressure, and
produces a CO2 stream overhead, which contains small
amounts of H2S and methane. The bottom product contains
H2S and the ethane plus components. The third column
produces NGL liquids, which are recycled back to the first
two columns. It is this recycle that allows the process to be
successful. The NGL liquids prevent CO2 solid formation in
the first column and aids in the breaking of the ethane/CO2
azeotrope in the second column to permit high ethane
recoveries.
• A four-column system is used where
CO2 feed concentration exceeds 50
percent. The initial column in this
scheme is a de-ethanizer. The
overhead product, a CO2/methane
binary, is sent to a bulk
CO2 removal column and de-
methanizer combination. CO2 is
produced as a liquid and is pumped
to injection or sales pressure.
• The two-column system is used when a
methane product is not required and is thus
produced with the CO2. Very high propane
recoveries may be achieved; however, little
ethane recovery is achieved.
• For feeds with small acid gas loadings, one of the batch
processes should be considered for removal of H2S. The
most common are: iron sponge, Sulfa-Treat, and Sulfa-
Check.
• As acid gas loadings increase, the disposal and
replacement costs become high, and it becomes necessary
to choose a process that can be regenerated. The amine
systems are most often used for these installation
systems. DEA is the most common amine system.
• The end product of an amine system is an acid gas
stream off the stripper, which must be flared. As acid
gas loadings increase, environmental constraints
require that this acid gas stream be converted to
sulfur. One of the processes that converts acid gas to
sulfur, such as LO-CAT®, SulFerox®, Claus, or
Stretford, must be added downstream of the amine
system. In some cases, it may be feasible to contact
the gas stream to be treated directly with LO- CAT®
or SulFerox® solution and eliminate the need to
separate the acid gas components from the gas stream
with an amine unit.
• When a Claus unit is used, it
may be necessary to add tail
gas cleanup downstream of the
Claus unit if acid gas loadings
are very high.
Removal of CO2
INTRODUCTION
(Distillation)
• Operating pressure, P
• Operating temperature, T
• System composition or concentration, x and y
In Summary
Cascade Refrigeration
• Cascade refrigeration refers to two refrigeration circuits thermally
connected by a cascade condenser, which is the condenser of the low-
temperature circuit and the evaporator of the high-temperature circuit.
• A cascade system utilizes one refrigerant to condense the other primary
refrigerant, which is operating at the desired evaporator temperature.
This approach is usually used for temperature levels below −90◦F, when
light hydrocarbon gases or other low boiling gases and vapors are being
cooled.
Mixed Refrigerants
• The evaporation process takes place over a temperature range rather than
at a constant temperature as with pure component refrigerants. The mixed
refrigerant is blended so that its evaporation curve matches the cooling
curve for the process fluid.
In this process, the nonideal behavior of the inlet gas causes the
gas temperature to fall with the pressure reduction, as shown
by line ABC’ in Figure2. The temperature change depends
primarily on the pressure drop.
Lecture by,
M.Aslam Abdullah
VIT University, Vellore.
FIGURE 1 Schematic of conventional turboexpander process with no recycle to
demethanizer. Note that the one heat exchanger represents a network of exchangers.
(Adapted from Engineering Data Book, 2004e.)
FIGURE 2 Cold-residue recycle process for maximizing ethane recovery.
Three basic methods are used for removal of nitrogen
from natural gas:
Cryogenic distillation
Adsorption
Membrane separation
TABLE 1 : Comparison of Nitrogen Removal Processes
FIGURE 3 NRU by use of two-column cryogenic distillation. Valves are J-
T valves.
FIGURE 4 Simple pressure swing adsorption (PSA) system.
FIGURE 5 Separating N2 from natural gas by use of membranes.
FIGURE 6 Schematic of an enhanced oil recovery (EOR) system.