Vertical Drains+deep Comp+Blasting - N

VERTICAL DRAINS
PRELOADING TECHNIQUE MAY NOT WORK SOMETIMES

ALONE DUE TO A THICK UNIFORM SOFT CLAY LAYER OR
PERMEABILITY OF THE CLAY IS VERY LOW SO THAT TIME
FOR PRECOMPRESSION (TSR) IS VERY LONG AND NOT
PRACTICAL OR SURCHARGE WILL BE VERY HIGH FOR
REASONABLE WAITING PERIODS. SOMETIMES RATE OF
UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH GAIN IS VERY SMALL WITH
TIME SO THAT RAPID PLACEMENT OF A HIGH FILL WILL
CAUSE FAILURE.
CE-464 Ground Improvement

TO ACCELERATE THE RATES OF SETTLEMENT HENCE TO
DECREASE THEPRELOADING TIMES, VERTICAL DRAINS ARE
INSTALLED TO SHORTEN THE DRAINAGE PATHS. IT IS
ESPECIALLY EFFECTIVE IN PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION.
PORE WATER PRESSURES DISSIPATE QUICKLY, T a Hdr2 , IN
MOST DEPOSITS kh>kv . IT IS NOT EFFECTIVE IN ORGANIC
SOILS AND PEATS IN WHICH COMPRESSIONS ARE
DOMINATED BY SECONDARY COMPRESSION.

THEORY OF CONSOLIDATION FOR RADIAL FLOW AND BOTH
RADIAL-VERTICAL CONSOLIDATION (COMBINED) HAVE BEEN
DEVELOPED FOR A LONG TIME (BARREN I948;CARILLO. 1942).
CONSOLIDATION TIME IS MAINLY AFFECTED BY THE DRAIN
SPACING RATHER THAN THE DRAIN DIAMETER.
EFFICIENCY OF DRAINS: IS THERE A SIGNIFICANT
DIFFERENCE IN THE PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION RATE WHEN
DRAINS ARE USED?
FOR SUCCESSFUL PROJECTS :
1. (vo’+Pf)>vo’ (PRECONSOLIDATION PRESSURE) (FIgure 7)
2. MUST BE LARGE.
3. THERE SHOULD NOT BE NATURAL DRAINAGE LAYERS.

EFFICIENCY FACTOR OF
VERTICAL DRAINS ;

FIELD MEASUREMENTS FROM 5 SITES INDICATE THAT
SATISFACTORY e VALUES RANGE BETWEEN 0.6 AND 0.8.
THE NEED AND EFFICIENCY OF DRAINS ARE LARGELY DEPENDENT
ON SOIL CHARACTERISTICS, SOIL PERMEABILITY AND
COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION.
RECENT ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS CONTAIN FREQUENT HORIZONTAL
BANDS OF SAND OR GRAVEL ETC.
THESE ARE USUALLY THIN AND VERY PERMEABLE COMPARED TO
CLAYS.
1. HIGHLY PERMEABLE BANDS OR SEAMS GREATLY INCREASE
EFFICIENCY OF DRAINS SINCE THEY ACT AS HORIZONTAL DRAINS
CONNECTED TO MAIN ARTERIES.
2. CONTINUOUS AND FREQUENT SEAMS OR BANDS OF HIGH
PERMEABILITY SOILS OFTEN MAKE VERTICAL DRAINS
UNNECESSARY OR GREATLY REDUCE THEIR REAL
EFFECTIVENESS (FIGURE 8).

Figure 8. Continuous
And Frequent
Permeable Soil Bands
Often Make Drains
Unnecessary
3. SOIL INVESTIGATIONS ARE VERY IMPORTANT

CONTINUOUS SAMPLING
K FIELD AT LOW HEADS
LARGE DIAMETER (25-30 CM) LABORATORY
CONSOLIDATION TESTS.

A NUMBER OF DRAINS AVAILABLE :
SAND DRAINS
CARD BOARD DRAINS
SAND WICKS
PLASTIC DRAINS
SOME FACTORS AFFECTING THE DRAIN PERFORMANCE :
1. SMEAR AND DISTORTION OF DRAIN WALLS WHICH REDUCE
DRAIN PERMEABILITY.
2. DISTURBANCE AND LATERAL DEFORMATIONS OF SOFT
GROUND RESULTING FROM DRAIN INSTALLATION.
PERMEABILITY DECREASES, UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH
DECREASES AND PORE WATER PRESSURES INCREASE
(ROWE, 1968)

SAND DRAINS
THEY WERE WIDELY USED BETWEEN 1930 -1980 WITH DIAMETERS
CHANGING BETWEEN 20 -60 CM AND WITH 1.5 TO 6 M SPACING.
CLOSED MANDREL METHOD : APPLIED BY PERCUSSION OR VIBRATION
OR JETTING. THE TUBE IS PUSHED DISPLACING THE SOIL. THERE IS A
LOOSE CAP AT THE END WHICH IS DETACHED AFTER PUSHING IS
COMPLETE. THEN THE TUBE IS FILLED AND EXTRACTED. IN THIS METHOD
THERE IS DISPLACEMENT AND DISTURBANCE WHICH RESULTS IN A
DECREASE OF UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH, PERMEABILITY DETECTED
BY MEASURING PORE WATER PRESSURES, EU AND SURFACE HEAVE.
OPEN MANDREL METHOD : IN THIS METHOD THE SOIL IN THE TUBE IS
REMOVED BY JETTING OR ANGERING. THE PROBLEM OF SMEAR STILL
EXISTS. AUGER METHOD USING SOLID STEM OR HOLLOW STEM AUGERS
WHICH IS A NON-DISPLACEMENT METHOD MAY BE CONSIDERED AS THE
BEST AS COMPARED TO THE OTHERS. ROTARY JETTING METHOD MAY
ALSO BE APPLIED.
SAND DRAIN APPLICATIONS ARE COMING TO AN END IN THE WESTERN
COUNTRIES.
CARDBOARD DRAINS
THEY ARE FIRST TRIED IN 1937 AND 1948 BY KJELLMAN.
THERE ARE DYNAMIC AND STATIC METHODS OF
INSTALLATION. CARDBOARD DRAINS ARE DRIVEN INTO THE
GROUND BY PURPOSE-MADE MANDREL WHICH IS THEN
REMOVED. THE ADVANTAGES CAN BE LISTED AS FOLLOWS:
THEY ARE EASY TO INSTALL
THEY CAN BE SPACED CLOSELY
THEY HAVE LONG LIFE
THEY HAVE THE ABILITY TO RESIST LARGE DEFORMATIONS.
CARDBOARD WICK DRAINS VISUALLY CONSIST OF A CORE

PLASTIC AND FILTER SLEEVE OF PAPER, FIBROUS
MATERIAL OR POROUS PLASTIC.
PLASTIC DRAINS
THESE ARE THE NEW GENERATION DRAINS WHICH ARE VERY
SIMILAR TO CARDBOARD DRAINS. THERE ARE SEVERAL
COMMERCIAL BRANDS IN THE MARKET AT PRESENT LIKE
ALIDRAIN, GEPDRAIN, CASTLEBOARD, COLBONT, MEBRADRAIN
AND PVC DRAIN. SEE FIGURE 10 FOR GEODRAIN.

SAND-WICKS
THESE ARE READY-MADE SMALL DIAMETER SAND DRAINS

WHICH ARE CONTAINED IN LONG CANVAS BAGS
(APPROXIMATELY 10 CM IN DIAMETER). THEY ARE
USUALLY INSTALLED BY CLOSE MANDREL TECHNIQUE.
THEY ARE RELATIVELY CHEAP AND FIRST USED IN INDIA BY
DASTIDAR ET AL. (1969) AND THEN BY SUBBARAJU ETAL.
(1973).

DESIGN OF VERTICAL DRAINS
THE MAIN ASSUMPTIONS MADE FOR THE DESIGN OF VERTICAL

DRAINS ARE ;
EACH DRAIN IS INDEPENDENT AT THE CENTRE OF A

CYLINDRICAL SOIL MASS AND IS ONLY AFFECTED BY THE
DRAINAGE OF THE SOIL IN IT.
INSTANTANEOUS LOADING OF THE HOMOGENEOUS SOIL

RESULTS IN SOLELY RADIAL CONSOLIDATION (AND
THEREFORE RADIAL FLOW) UNDER CONDITIONS OF
CONSTANT PERMEABILITY (kh ) AND RADIAL CONSOLIDATION
COEFFICIENT (ch) .

THE EQUATION WHICH GOVERNS THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PORE PRESSURE, U,
RADIAL DISTANCE FROM THE DRAIN , r, AND TIME,
t,(IN FACT kh=f(t) AND ch=f(t) ) IS GIVEN BELOW.
DRAIN EFFECTS, SMEAR DISTURBANCE, WELL
RESISTANCE, LOADING RATE, CREEP EFFECTS,
APPROPRIATE HYDRAULIC FLOW FORMULATION
CAN BE ALL INCLUDED IN THE ANALYSES.
  2u 1 u  u u=u0 at t=0 at all place

ch  2    u=u0 In the draIn at any tIme
 r r r  t
SOLUTIONS MAY BE OBTAINED FOR TWO TYPES OF
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS.
1. UNIFORM SURCHARGE ON THE GROUND SURFACE (FREE
STRAIN)
2. UNIFORM VERTICAL DEFORMATION OF THE SURFACE
(EQUAL STRAIN)
BOTH SOLUTIONS ARE SIMILAR BUT UNIFORM VERTICAL
STRAIN CONDITION IS SIMPLER.
ASSUMING THAT THE VERTICAL FLOW IS NEGLIGIBLE,
THE EXPRESSION FOR RADIAL (HORIZONTAL) DEGREE OF
CONSOLIDATION IS ;
8Th c h .t
Th 
Uh  1 e F ( n ) where,
de
2 (horIzontal tIme factor)

HANSBO(1979);F = F(n) + Fs + Fr
WHERE;
F(n) : DUE TO SPACING OF DRAINS
Fs : SMEAR EFFECT
Fr : WELL-RESISTANCE
d e .  1 
2
TIME FOR CONSOLIDATION IS; t ln  
8.c h  1  U h 
WHERE
Uh, IS THE AVERAGE DEGREE OF RADIAL CONSOLIDATION
USUALLY n>12 AND
F(n)=  = ln(n) - 0.75 MAY BE USED.

VARIATION OF Uh WITH HORIZONTAL TIME FACTOR FOR
VARIOUS n VALUES (EQUAL VERTICAL STRAIN) IS SHOWN IS
FIGURE 12. THE EQUATIONS OF Cv AND t FOR VERTICAL AND
RADIAL CONSOLIDATION ARE AS FOLLOWS;
k v (1  e0 ) H 2 .Tv Tv .H 2
cv   t (VERTICAL CONSOLIDATION)
a v . w t cv
2 2
k h (1  e0 ) d e .Th Th .d e
or ch   t (RADIAL CONSOLIDATION)
av . w t ch
NOTE THAT mv = av / (1+e0)
FIgure 12. VarIatIon Of Uh WIth TIme Factor For VarIous N Values (Equal StraIn)

CONSOLIDATION OF THE CYLINDRICAL BODY OF SOIL AROUND
A VERTICAL DRAIN IS, IN FACT, THREE DIMENSIONAL AND IS
GOVERNED BY THE EQUATION ;
  2 u 1 u   2 u u
c h  2  .   cv 2 
 x x x  z t
OVERALL (THREE DIMENSIONAL) DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION,
U=1-U=(1-UH).(1-UV) WHERE UV IS THE AVERAGE VERTICAL
DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION.
THE ABOVE CONSIDERATIONS ARE FOR ALL TYPES OF
VERTICAL DRAINS. THE EQUIVALENT DIAMETER D W OF A
BAND SHAPED DRAIN OF WIDTH B, AND THICKNESS T, IS
CALCULATED BY USING THE RELATIONSHIP GIVEN BELOW.

2(b  t )
dw 

BOTH WELL RESISTANCE AND WELL DISTURBANCE DURING
INSTALLATION MAY CAUSE THE ACTUAL TIMES FOR CONSOLIDATION
TO BE GREATER THAN PREDICTED BY THE ABOVE EQUATIONS.
DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF THE TOPIC ARE STUDIED BY VARIOUS
RESEARCHERS. SOME OF THEM ARE;
•SOLUTION FOR GRADUALLY APPLIED LOADING BY CHAPUT AND

THOMANN (1975)
•SMEAR AND WELL RESISTANCE STUDIED BY, YOSHIKUNI AND

NAKANODO (1974) , BARREN(1948),-ABOSHI (1969), RICHART
(1959), BERRY AND WILKINSON (1969)
•EFFECT OF STRATIFICATION IS STUDIED BY LEE AND

VALIAPPAN (1974)
REVIEW - DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
THE COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION FOR VERTICAL

COMPRESSION AND HORIZONTAL FLOW DOMINATES THE
DESIGN OF SAND DRAINS.
k h (1  e0 ) Th .d e
2
ch  t
av . w ch
kh kv
or ch  cv 
mv . w mv . w
(NOTE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE ABOVE EQUATIONS)

Ch IS PRINCIPALLY DEPENDENT ON kh BECAUSE mv IS LESS
VARIABLE. ONE WAY OF ESTIMATING kh, IS TO CONDUCT
SPECIAL LABORATORY TESTS FOR RADIAL DRAINAGE IN
UNIFORM SOILS USUALLY kh>kv (HANSBO(1960),
ROWE(1964), BERRY AND WILKINSON(1969), PAUTE(1973).
MITCHEL AND GARDNER NOTED THAT THE BEST WAY IS TO

MEASURE AV OR MV IN THE LAB AND KH, IN THE
FIELD(USUALLY CH/CV RANGES BETWEEN 2- 10).

FIELD CONTROL OF THE CONSTRUCTION
IT IS VERY IMPORTANT TO CHECK WHAT IS GOING ON AFTER

THE DESIGN HAS BEEN DONE AND THE LOADING STARTED.
MEASUREMENTS ARE INTEGRAL PART OF THE DESIGN
PROCESS AND IT MAY NOT BE POSSIBLE TO COMPLETE A
PRELOADING-DRAINS PROJECT WITHOUT FIELD
INSTRUMENTATION.
THE SIMPLEST WAY IS TO MEASURE THE SURFACE
SETTLEMENTS. PIEZOMETERS AT THE CENTRE AND OTHER
ELEVATIONS OF THE SOFT CLAY AT THE MID-DISTANCE OF
THE DRAINS AND THE SETTLEMENT GAUGES AT VARIOUS
DEPTHS (BOREHOLE GAUGES) ARE USUALLY USED TO
ASSESS AND TO CHECK THE DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS.
NECESSARY CHANGES ARE MADE IF REQUIRED.
VARIOUS CASE HISTORIES INVOKING VERTICAL DRAINS TO
SPEED UP THE CONSOLIDATION PROCESS WERE DESCRIBED
BY JOHNSON (1970B), BJERRUM (1972) AND PILOT (1981).
VERTICAL DRAINS ARE GENERALLY EFFECTIVE EXCEPT IN

ORGANIC CLAYS, HIGHLY STRATIFIED SOILS OR IN SOILS WHERE
SEVERE STABILITY PROBLEMS EXIST. THESE SOILS ALREADY
SETTLE IN A SHORT TIME.
THE METHOD OFTEN SAVES LARGE SUMS OF MONEY AND CAN

BE USED IN VERY POOR SUBSOIL CONDITIONS. LARGE POST
CONSTRUCTION SETTLEMENTS MAY BE ELIMINATED, COSTS OF
SURCHARGE AND/OR VERTICAL DRAINS AND PRELOADING
PERIODS SHOULD BE COMPARED.

PLASTIC DRAINS ARE INCREASINGLY BEING USED.
BEST METHOD IN THE INSTALLATION OF SAND DRAINS IS

AUGERING. OPEN MANDREL METHOD RESULTS IN MORE
EFFICIENT DRAINS THAN CLOSE MANDREL METHOD.
TIMES FOR CONSOLIDATION CHANGES FROM MONTHS TO A

YEAR OR MORE.
IF Pf < c' DO NOT USE SAND DRAINS.

FIELD TESTS (ESPECIALLY FIELD PERMEABILITY) IN STRATIFIED
SOILS MAY BE REQUIRED TO DECIDE EFFICIENCY OF THIN
PERVIOUS SOILS AS DRAINAGE LAYERS. IN MANY CASES
CONSOLIDATION RATES ARE MUCH FASTER THAN USUALLY
PREDICTED DUE TO CONVENTIONAL LABORATORY APPROACHES
AND THERE MAY NOT BE ANY NEED FOR DRAINS IN SOILS HAVING
CONTINUOUS PERMEABLE BANDS.
ON THE OTHER HAND PREDICTIONS OF RATES OF

CONSOLIDATION WHERE DRAINS ARE INSTALLED CAN NOT BE
MADE RELIABLY BECAUSE OF THE DIFFICULTIES IN DETERMINING
A REPRESENTATIVE VALUE OF ch , AND ACCOUNTING FOR THE
EFFECTS OF THE DRAIN INSTALLATION (DISTURBANCE AND
SMEAR).
SITE INVESTIGATION EFFORTS MUST BE OF GOOD QUALITY.

WELL RESISTANCE
DISCHARGE CAPACITY OF THE DRAINS = qw

PERMEABILITY OF THE SOIL = kc
kc
 r  ln(n)  0.75  z (2l  z )
qw
WHERE
l = LENGTH OF THE DRAIN WHEN OPEN AT ONE END ONLY
(HALF LENGTH OF THE DRAIN WHEN OPEN AT BOTH ENDS)
z = DISTANCE FROM OPEN END OF DRAIN (0 < z < 21)
WHEN qw / kc < 3000 m2 WELL RESISTANCE CAN NOT BE

IGNORED.

SMEAR DISTURBANCE
  kc  
    1 
n kc kc   kc '  
 s  ln( )  ln(s )  0.75  z (2l  z ) 1  2 
s kc ' q w   k c  n  
  
 k '  s  
  c  
WHERE s=ds / dw
ds = DIAMETER OF THE DISTURBED ZONE

kc' = PERMEABILITY OF THE DISTURBED ZONE

CHAPTER 2
DEEP COMPACTION
THE MAIN PURPOSE OF TREATING OR IMPROVING THE
SOILS IS TO ELIMINATE THE DANGER OF EXCESSIVE
SETTLEMENTS. LOOSE COHESIONLESS SOILS DO NOT POSE
SERIOUS PROBLEMS IN TERMS OF STABILITY AND
SETTLEMENT. LIQUEFACTION IS THE MAIN CONCERN FOR
LOOSE COHESIONLESS SOILS UNDER WATER TABLE.
OTHER DYNAMIC LOADS ALSO AFFECT THESE SOILS.
METHODS FOR COHESIONLESS SOILS :
- VIBROCOMPACTION TECHNIQUES
- COMPACTION PILES

1. VIBROFLOATATION
THIS IS NOT A NEW METHOD. (50 YEARS OLD). THE

EQUIPMENT HAS THREE ELEMENTS.
A) THE VIBRATOR OR VIBROFLOT

B) EXTENSION TUBES
C) CRANE (-T-WATER JET SUPPLY WATER, PUMP+GENERATOR,
CABLES).
VIBROFLOT IS A CYLINDRICAL PROBE WHICH PENETRATES

INTO THE GROUND WITH THE AID OF VIBRATION (VERTICAL
AND/OR HORIZONTAL) AND ITS OWN WEIGHT AND JETTING
(WATER MOSTLY, FOR DEEP PENETRATIONS AIR OR AIR
AND WATER).

VIBROFLOT DIAMETERS ARE IN THE RANGE OF 0.35 - 0.50 m,
LENGTHS 2-6 m. AN ECCENTRIC MASS IS AT THE LOWER
PART OF THE VIBRO PROBE WHICH IS A HOLLOW STEEL
TUBE WEIGHTS OF VIBROFLOTS ARE USUALLY IN THE
RANGE OF 20 - 40 kN (2-4 ton) AND THEY DEVELOP
HORIZONTAL CENTRIFUGAL FORCES OF 80-160 kN.
VIBRATION AMPLITUDES ARE UP TO 20-25 mm AND USUAL
OPERATING FREQUENCIES ARE 30-50 Hz (1800 - 3000 rpm)
(35-100 kW POWER) WATER JETS MAY BE APPLIED AT TOP
AND/OR BOTTOM.

TYPICAL VIBROFLOT PENETRATION RATES: 1-2 m/mIn,
VIBROFLOT WITHDRAWAL / COMPACTION RATES : 0.3 m/mIn.
WATER JETTING PRESSURES UP TO 800 kN/m2, FLOW RATES
UP TO 3000 lt/mIn (50 lt/sec). SAND BACKFILL IS SUPPLIED AT
A RATE UP TO 1.5 m3/m RADIUS OF INFLUENCE, R FROM THE
VIBRATOR DEPENDS ON THE TYPE OF VIBRATOR AND SOIL
TYPE 0.6–0.9 m FOR 20 % OR MORE SMALLER THAN NO. 200
SIEVE AND 2 m FOR CLEAN SANDS.

MOST EFFECTIVE IN CLEAN SANDS, HOWEVER WEBB &
HALL (1968) REPORT GOOD SUCCESS IN SOILS CONTAINING
APPRECIABLE PORTIONS OF SILT AND CLAY AS MUCH AS
30%. CAQUAT - KERISEL (1966) RECOMMEND COARSE SAND,
GRAVEL OR COBBLES AS FILLING MATERIAL. WHEN
DENSIFYING FINE SANDS AND SILTY SAND COARSE
PARTICLES ARE MORE EFFECTIVE TO IMPROVE
TRANSMISSION OF VIBRATION TO SURROUNDING SOIL
BETTER.
THERE ARE ALSO CASES ON RECORD WITH VERY FINE

SAND, FINE SAND WITH LENSES OF MUD, FINE SAND WITH
BALLS OF CLAY AND SILTS AND SANDS WITH CLAY LAYERS
UP TO A METER.

RELATIVE DENSITY, Dr,OF AT LEAST 70 % CAN BE OBTAINED
BETWEEN CENTERS. INCREASE IN RELATIVE DENSITY IS
BETWEEN 20% - 40%.
qall AFTER TREATMENT IS USUALLY AROUND 2 - 3 kg/cm 2

(COST ROUGHLY 2- 4 $/m3 USA RATE).
THE DESIGN OF A VIBROFLOATATION TREATMENT REQUIRES

SPECIFICATION OF THE DESIRED RELATIVE DENSITY AND THE
PATTERN AND SPACING OF VIBROFLOT HOLES. A RELATIVE
DENSITY OF AT LEAST 75 % HAS BEEN A FREQUENTLY USED
REQUIREMENT TO INSURE AGAINST EXCESSIVE SETTLEMENT
OR LIQUEFACTION, HOWEVER THE VALUE SPECIFIED IS A
FUNCTION OF THE TYPE OF PROJECT AND THE LOCAL
CONDITIONS.

D'APPOLONIA, MILLER AND WARE (1955) SUMMARIZE SOME OF
THEIR FINDINGS;
TRIANGULAR PATTERN PREFERRED DUE TO GREATEST

COMPACTION EFFORT OVERLAP.
D, IS NOT INCREASED ABOVE 70% AT POINTS MORE THAN 1

m FROM A SINGLE VIBROFLOT COMPACTION.
THE OVERLAPPING EFFECT FOR SPACINGS GREATER THAN

2.4 m IS SMALL.
SPACINGS LESS THAN 1.8 m SHOULD GIVE Dr HIGHER THAN

70 % WITHIN THE COMPACTED AREA.
THE EFFECT OF ADJACENT COMPACTIONS CAN BE

SUPERIMPOSED.
A PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINING VIBROFLOT SPACING

REQUIRED TO OBTAIN A SPECIFIED Dr (mIn.) IS PRESENTED.
WEBB & HALL (1968) ALSO DESCRIBE A SIMILAR METHOD
FOR SILTY AND CLAYEY SAND.
A SPACING OF 2.1 – 2.4 m IS OFTEN CHOSEN. CLEAN COARSE

SANDS AND COARSER SOILS MAY REQUIRE 2.4 m OR MORE.
FINER MATERIAL AND MATERIAL CONTAINING CLAY
INCLUSIONS MAY REQUIRE MUCH CLOSER SPACINGS.
RANGE (1.5 -3M) DEPENDS ON;

- TYPE OF SOIL AND BACKFILL
- PROBE TYPE AND ENERGY
- LEVEL OF IMPROVEMENT REQUIRED
2. VIBRATING PROBES
VIBRATORY PIPES OR PROBES MAY BE PUSHED INTO THE SOIL

TO DENSIFY THE SOIL LAYERS WITHOUT ADDING MATERIAL AT
DEPTH, ONLY SURFACE ADDITION IS DONE.
ANDERSON(1974) USES PILE VIBRO-DRIVER HAMMER ON TOP

OF A 0.76 m DIAMETER PIPE PILE (3-5 m LONGER THAN THE
DEPTH OF TREATMENT). TYPICAL APPLICATION
CHARACTERISTICS ARE; FREQUENCY 15 Hz, VERTICAL
AMPLITUDE 10-25 mm, APPROXIMATELY 15 Probes /hr, 1-3 m
SPACING, UPPER FEW METERS ARE NOT EFFECTIVELY
DENSIFIED.
SAITO (1977) USES AGAIN VIBRATORY PILE DRIVING HAMMER

AND VIBRO-RODS
3. VIBRO - COMPOZER METHOD
COMPRESSED
AIR IS USED
INSIDE THE
CASING TO
HOLD SAND IN
PLACE WHILE
WITHDRAWING
THE CASING
MURAYAMA
(1958)
4. SOIL VIBRATORY STABILIZING METHOD
(SVS)
IN SVS VERTICAL VIBRATION AND HORIZONTAL VIBRATION
ARE APPLIED. SIMILAR TO VIBROFLOT SAND BACKFILL
USED, WATER IS NOT USED.

5. COMPACTION PILES
DENSIFICATION FROM TWO EFFECTS

1. DISPLACEMENT OF SOIL
2. VIBRATION DURING DRIVING
A CASING WITH DETACHABLE (LOST POINT) END PLATE

OR WITH A SPECIAL OPENING MECHANISM AT THE TIP IS
DRIVEN BACKFILL IS FILLED AS THE CASING IS
WITHDRAWN. USUALLY 0.9 - 1.5M SPACING IS USED.
BETTER IN FULLY SATURATED OR DRY SANDS.

FRANKI MACHINES AND TECHNIQUE ARE ALSO VERY
SUITABLE TO FORM SAND OR GRAVEL PILES.
IF THE PERMEABILITY OF THE SOIL IS NOT HIGH, SAND OR
GRAVEL PILES ALSO ACT AS DRAINAGE COLUMNS
SAND DRAINS TO ACCELERATE SETTLEMENTS ARE
DIFFERENT CONCEPT AS WE HAVE DISCUSSED PREVIOUSLY
HORIZONTAL EXTENT OF THE COMPACTED ZONE ALONG

THE SHAFT IS ABOUT 5 RADII. FRANKI TECHNIQUE IS MORE
EFFECTIVE THAN A DRIVEN PIPE, MEYERHOF (1959).

SUITABILITY OF SOILS AND METHODS
SOIL TYPE, GRADATION, FINES CONTENT ETC.

DEGREE OF SATURATION, LEVEL OF G.W.T
INITIAL DR
’V0 , ’H0 (OCR, VMAX)
INITIAL SOIL STRUCTURE, CEMENTATION, AGE ETC.
SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE METHOD USED
VIBROCOMPACTION METHODS ARE BEST SUITED TO
CLEAN COHESIONLESS SOILS WITH 20-25% MAXIMUM FINE
CONTENT DUE TO LOW PERMEABILITY AND COHESION
IN LOESS, SILTY SANDS WHERE FINES ARE HIGH IN %,
TRY OTHER TECHNIQUES LIKE HEAVY TAMPING (DYNAMIC
CONSOLIDATION)
EVALUATION OF THE TREATED GROUND MAY BE DONE BY
ONE OR TWO OF THE FOLLOWING METHODS;
1. SURFACE SETTLEMENT MARKERS

2. VOLUME OF ADDED SOIL (CRATERS OR
VIBROCOMPACTION DISP.)
3. STANDARD PENERATION TEST, SPT.
4. CONE PENETRATION TEST, DUTCH CONE, CPT
5. PRESSUREMETER TEST, PMT
6. SEISMIC SHEAR WAVE VELOCITY DETERMINATIONS, VS
7. PILE DRIVING RESISTANCES
8. PLATE LOADING TESTS
9. DOWN - HOLE DENSITY METERS.
VERY MEDIUM VERY
LOOSE DENSE
LOOSE DENSE DENSE
SPT- N
VALUE <4 4-10 10-30 30-35 >50
CPT QC
(KG/CM2)
<50 50-100 >200
EQUIVALENT
DR (%) <15 15-35 35-65 65-85 85-100
DRY UNIT
WEIGHT <14 14-16 16-18 18-20 >20
(KN/M3)
FRICTION
ANGLE
<30 30-32 32-35 35-38 >38

VIBROCOMPACTION GRIDS ARE SQUARE OR TRIANGULAR
ASSUMING DENSIFICATION ONLY IN LATERAL DIRECTION
(D<80CM)  (1  e0 )  (1  e0 )
SQUARE S  d TRIANGULAR S  1.08 d
e0  e (CONSIDER AVERAGE e)
e0  e

BROWN (1977) HAS DEFINED A SUITABILITY NUMBER FOR
VIBROFLOATATION BACKFILLS.
3 1 1
Suitabilit y Number  1.7 2
 2

( D50 ) ( D20 ) ( D10 ) 2
D10, D20 and D50 ARE MM PARTICLE SIZES CORRESPONDING % PASSING.
SUITABILITY NUMBERS AND BACKFILL CLASSES
0-10 EXCELLENT
10-20 GOOD
FASTER THE 20-30 FAIR
VIBROFLOT TAKEN UP 30-50 POOR
> 50 UNSUITABLE
DYNAMIC CONSOLIDATION OR
HEAVY TAMPING (POUNDING)
FIRST APPLICATIONS 1970 - 1973 BY MENARD .
IT IS REPEATED DROPPING OF A HEAVY WEIGHT ON TO THE
SURFACE OF THE SOIL TO COMPACT IT.
WEIGHTS (OR POUNDERS) USED MAY BE CONCRETE BLOCKS,

TOUGHENED STEEL PLATES BOLTED TOGETHER OR THICK STEEL
SHELLS FILLED WITH CONCRETE OR SAND AND MAY RANGE
BETWEEN 1/2 - 200 TONS.
DURABILITY OF THE WEIGHT IS IMPORANT BECAUSE OF LARGE
NUMBER OF DROPS.
DROP HEIGHTS (H) ARE UP TO 40 M AND SQUARE OR CIRCULAR
SHAPES IN PLAN ARE USED.
B(WIDTH) OR D (DIAMETER) IS FEW METERS AND DEPENDS ON
 WEIGHT REQUIRED
 MATERIAL
 BEARING CAPACITY OF THE SOIL
A TYPICAL APPLICATION H = 20 M AND W = 15 - 20 TON

DEPTH OF COMPACTION = 10 M.
USUALLY LARGE AREAS (NOT VERY CLOSE TO POPULATED

AREAS) ARE SELECTED TO APPLY HIS METHOD.
USUALLY RECTANGULAR GRID POINTS 5-10 M APART ARE

USED, 5-10 BLOWS OF THE TAMPER ARE APPLIED AT EACH
POINT.
THE NUMBER OF BLOWS AT A POINT IS CONTROLLED

PRIMARILY BY THE OBSERVATION OF THE DEPTH OF
DEPRESSION CREATED.
A TYPICAL TREATMENT : AVERAGE 2-3 BLOWS /m2
2 OR 3 COVERAGES OF AN AREA MAY BE REQUIRED. THE TIME
INTERVAL BETWEEN COVERAGES DEPENDS ON THE RATE OF
DISSIPATION OF EXCESS POREWATER PRESSURES AND
STRENGTH REGAIN.
EXAMPLE FOR COARSE SAND DAYS AND FOR FINE GRAINED SOIL
WEEKS MAY BE NECESSARY.
GROUND SURFACE IS USUALLY LEVELLED BETWEEN
COVERAGES BY IMPORTED GRANULAR MATERIAL.
BEFORE FURTHER PASSES OF TAMPING, MEASUREMENTS ARE
DONE AFTER LEVELLING TO ASSESS AVERAGE FORCED
SETTLEMENT ( DS : 2 - 5 % PER COVERAGE).
TO ASSESS THE TRUE VOLUME COMPRESSION MEASUREMENTS
AND CALCULATIONS ARE DONE AT SELECTED POINTS.
BEFORE STARTING TAMPING A SURFACE BLANKET OF
UNSATURATED GRANULAR MATERIAL I M THICK OR MORE
IS SPREAD OVER THE AREA TO BE TAMPED IF THIS DOES
NOT OCCUR NATURALLY TO LESSEN LOCAL SHEAR & TO
ALLOW EFFECTIVE COMPACTION.
"IRONING" IS FULL COVERAGE OF THE AREA BY SMALL

IMPACTS. IT COMPACTS THE SURFACE LAYERS (H = 2-3 M).
IT CAN BE DONE BY SURFACE ROLLING.

ECONOMIC DEPTH BELOW BLANKET: 3-10 M.
S(NO IMPROVEMENT) / S(AFTER TAMPING) = 4-5
NOTE THAT IMPROVEMENT IS NOT UNIFORM WITH DEPTH.
PRELIMINARY TESTS (TRIAL) ARE NECESSARY.
A SUITABLE METHOD OF CONTROLLING THE COMPACTION
IS ESSENTIAL (PRE&POST TESTS)
GENERALLY IT IS BELIEVED THAT PLASTIC SATURATED

CLAYS ARE NOT SUITABLE FOR TAMPING. LOW PLASTICITY
COHESIVE SOILS MAY BE SUITABLE.

wave propagation under impact (after R.D.WOODS)

BLASTING
PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD: BY BLASTING BURIED
EXPLOSIVES (DYNAMITE, TNT, AMMONITE ETC.)
LONGITUDINAL AND SHEAR DETONATION WAVES ARE
PRODUCED.
APPLIED TO MAINLY LOOSE, COHESIONLESS, SATURATED

SOILS (MOST SUITABLE)
BLASTING CAUSES LIQUEFACTION, AND THEREFORE SOIL

STRUCTURE IS BROKEN
AFTER BLASTING, WATER AND GAS IS EXPELLED.
DENSIFICATION OCCURS
SAND BOILS AT THE SURFACE (CRATERING IS AVOIDED)

PROCEDURE :
1. PIPE IS INSTALLED TO THE

DESIRED DEPTH (BY JETTING,
VIBRATING ETC.).
2. CHARGE IS PLACED IN THE PIPE.
3. PIPE IS WITHDRAWN AND THE

HOLE IS BACKFILLED (SOMETIMES
PIPES ARE LEFT IN PLACE AND
FIXED LATER ON).
4. THE CHARGES ARE DETONATED

ACCORDING TO THE PRE-
ESTABLISHED PATTERN.
MAJOR SETTLEMENT FOLLOWS THE BLAST, SMALLER
SETLEMENTS LAST FOR THE NEXT FEW MINUTES .
PIEZOMETERS ARE USUALLY INSTALLED .
DENSER (STRONGER) THE SAND AND HIGHER DR AND GREATER

THE REQUIRED DEPTH FOR DENSIFICATION NEEDS GREATER
AMOUNTS OF EXPLOSIVES (BLAST) TO BE USED (I.E. HIGHER
ENERGY REQUIRED).
SUITABILITY AS FAR AS GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION IS CONCERNED
IS SAME AS VIBROFLOATATION.
LYMAN REPORTS EFFECTIVENESS IN SILTY SOILS. WILD & HASLAM

FOUND THE METHOD EFFECTIVE IN A MICACEOUS SAND (75 % OF
THE PARTICLES SMALLER THAN NO: 200 SIEVE). PRUGH FOUND
THAT CLAY POCKETS REDUCE THE EFFICIENCY DRASTICALLY .

PARTLY SATURATED SOILS MAY BE SATURATED ARTIFICIALLY.
NO GENERALLY ACCEPTED DESIGN PROCEDURES ARE
AVAILABLE. CONDUCT FIELD TRIALS AND/OR FOLLOW
GENERAL GUIDELINES FROM PREVIOUS EXPERIENCES AND
STUDIES FOR A GOOD APPLICATION.
IVANOV (1967) EXPERIENCES UP TO 20 M DEPTH.

CHARGE SIZE : < 1 - 12 kg
DEPTH OF BURIAL ‘D’
(CENTER OF CHARGE)
D> H/4 - D=H
ANOTHER RECOMMENDATION D = 0.67 H

CHARGE SPACING IN PLAN : 3-15 m
NUMBER OF COVERAGES : 1-5 (2-3 usual)
EACH COVERAGE CONSISTS OR A NUMBER INDIVIDUAL

CHARGES.
TOTAL EXPLOSIVE USE : 8-150 g/m3 (10-30 g/m3 typical)
SURFACE SETTLEMENT : 2-10 % of layer thickness
DEPTH OF TREATMENT : VARIABLE, APPLICATIONS UP TO 30-

40 m ARE QUOTED;
PRACTICAL LIMIT: TO PLACE THE REQUIRED CONCENTRATED
CHARGES TO THE REQUIRED DEPTH.

AS 'H' INCREASES 0 AND Dr ALSO INCREASE WITH
INCREASING ENERGY REQUIRED, DECREASING RADIUS OF
INFLUENCE.
1
 C
3
IVANOV 1987 Pmax  k1  


 R 
where ; Pmax IS THE MAGNITUDE OF SHOCK WAVE PRESSURE
(kg/cm2)
C IS THE SIZE OF CHARGE, (kg of TNT)
R IS THE DISTANCE FROM CENTRE OF CHARGE (m)
1, 2, k1, k2 ARE EMPIRICAL COEFFICIENTS.
2
3 C 
I  k2 3 C  
 ‘I’ IS THE IMPULSE PER UNIT AREA (kg.sec/cm2).
 R 
3 C 
 
SOMETIMES THE RATIO  R  IS CALLED HOPKINSON'S NUMBER.
 
EVEN SMALL % GAS CAUSES DAMPING OF P - WAVE PRESSURES.
DENSIFICATION UP TO 75-80 % DR HAS BEEN POSSIBLE, SOMETIMES
ERRATIC RESULTS OCCUR, INITIALLY DENSE LAYERS MAY BE LOOSENED.
UPPER 1 - 2 m NOT EFFECTIVE AND COMPACTED BY SURFACE ROLLERS.
Gas Content (%) k1 1 k2 2
0.35 600
0.85 450
Sand Below GWT
1 250
4 45
Moist 8-10 % water
Moist 2-4 % water

LYMAN, 1942 GIVES THE FOLLOWING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
WEIGHT OF CHARGE, C, IN LBS AND RADIUS OF SPHERE OF
INFLUENCE, R(ft),
C = * R3
 = 0.0025 (0.062 m/ kg) for 60% Dynamite
THE SIZE OF THE CHARGE ‘C’ (IN KG TNT) CAN BE TAKEN AS,
ACCORDING TO IVANOV, 1978;
C = 0.055 * d3ch where d3ch IS THE DEPTH OF CHARGE PLACED.
KOK & TRENSE, 1979 BASED ON PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE THE

EFFECTIVE RADIUS, Reff (IN m) OF THE INFLUENCE OF BLASTING
(DEFINED AS THE RADIUS WITHIN WHICH FAIRLY UNIFORM
COMPACTION OCCURS AND APPROXIMATES THE BASE OF THE
SETTLEMENT SAUCER) CAN BE EXPRESSED AS;
Reff  K .3 C where K=2-5

AS A RESULT OF BLASTING, LIQUEFACTION OCCURS WHICH IS
THE POTENTIAL FOR DENSIFICATION.
LIQUEFACTION COEFFICIENT u/’0

u : EXCESS POREWATER PRESSURE
’0 : EFFECTIVE OVERBURDEN PRESSURE PRIOR TO
BLASTING
IF DEPTH EFFECT IS DISREGARDED :
KOK & TRENSE, 1979 LIQUEFACTION OCCURS WHEN u/’0

APPROACHES TO UNITY.

u/’0 VALUES
3 3 3
C C C
1.53  0.77 1.65  0.64 2.15  0.74
R R R
MIN MEAN MAX
This gives a mean value for the radius of liquefaction
 2 .0 C 
3

Rliqu  2.8 C 3
  4. 7 C 
3
MIN MEAN MAX

BARENDSEN & KOK (1983):
IF 3 C / R  0.15 THEN NO BOILING.

THE MINIMUM DISTANCE R OF THE CHARGE CAN BE DEDUCED

ACCORDING TO IVANOV (I983) OPTIMUM VALUE OF SUCH
CHARGES WOULD BE AT THE ORDER OF ABOUT 10 KG TNT.
HOPKINSON NUMBER IS ALSO A MEASURE OF SETTLEMENT

OF THE SOIL LAYER, WITH INITIAL THICKNESS H, WHEN
TREATED WITH EXPLOSIVES;
s  H . (3 C / R )
EXPERIMENTALLY FOR AMSTERDAM HARBOUR:

s  2.73  0.9 ln(3 C / R) 
AFTER BLASTING PENETRATION RESISTANCES IN LOOSE
SOILS DO NOT INCREASE IMMEDIATELY BUT GRADUALLY !
VERY DENSE LAYERS MAY BE LOOSENED OR WEAKENED

BY BLAST BUT OVERALL EFFECT IS POSITIVE.
REPEATED SHOTS ARE MORE EFFECTIVE THAN A SINGLE

LARGE ONE OR SEVERAL SMALL ONES DETONATED
SIMULTANEOUSLY.
DELAYED BLASTING (1-5 SEC) IS MORE EFFECTIVE THAN

ORDINARY BLASTING.
WHEN A SERIES OF COVERAGES ARE USED THE SURFACE

SETTLEMENT ACCOMPANYING EACH COVERAGE IS
USUALLY LESS THAN THE ONE PROCEEDING.

DEPTH SHOULD BE GREATER THAN R IF SURFACE
CRATERING IS TO BE AVOIDED.
MOST WIDELY USED EXPLOSIVES ARE 60 % DYNAMITE, 30%

SPECIAL GELATINE DYNAMITE AND AMMONITE.
USING EXPLOSIVES FOR COMPACTION RELATIVE DENSITIES

DR OF LOOSE SAND LAYERS CAN BE IMPROVED BY AN
AVERAGE OF Dr = 15% UP TO 30% IF INITIAL DENSITY IS
LOW ENOUGH (E.G. Dr <50%).
FOR MEDIUM DENSITIES WHICH SURPASS FOR INSTANCE

Dr = 60 % A NOTICABLE IMPROVEMENT IS OFTEN VERY
DIFFICULT.

HYDRO-BLASTING TECHNIQUE HAS BEEN USED VERY
SUCCESFULLY IN USSR IN LOESS DEPOSITS (COLLAPSIBLE)
THERE ARE MAINLY TWO PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH BLASTING.
•EFFECTS ON ADJACENT STRUCTURES
•EFFECTS ON PEOPLE

Vertical Drains+deep Comp+Blasting - N

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VERTICAL DRAINS

PRELOADING TECHNIQUE MAY NOT WORK SOMETIMES

CE-464 Ground Improvement

CE-464 Ground Improvement

CE-464 Ground Improvement

CE-464 Ground Improvement

CE-464 Ground Improvement

3. SOIL INVESTIGATIONS ARE VERY IMPORTANT

CE-464 Ground Improvement

CE-464 Ground Improvement

CARDBOARD WICK DRAINS VISUALLY CONSIST OF A CORE

CE-464 Ground Improvement

THESE ARE READY-MADE SMALL DIAMETER SAND DRAINS

CE-464 Ground Improvement

THE MAIN ASSUMPTIONS MADE FOR THE DESIGN OF VERTICAL

EACH DRAIN IS INDEPENDENT AT THE CENTRE OF A

INSTANTANEOUS LOADING OF THE HOMOGENEOUS SOIL

CE-464 Ground Improvement

  2u 1 u  u u=u0 at t=0 at all place

CE-464 Ground Improvement

CE-464 Ground Improvement

CE-464 Ground Improvement

CE-464 Ground Improvement

•SOLUTION FOR GRADUALLY APPLIED LOADING BY CHAPUT AND

•SMEAR AND WELL RESISTANCE STUDIED BY, YOSHIKUNI AND

•EFFECT OF STRATIFICATION IS STUDIED BY LEE AND

THE COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION FOR VERTICAL

(NOTE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE ABOVE EQUATIONS)

CE-464 Ground Improvement

MITCHEL AND GARDNER NOTED THAT THE BEST WAY IS TO

CE-464 Ground Improvement

IT IS VERY IMPORTANT TO CHECK WHAT IS GOING ON AFTER

VERTICAL DRAINS ARE GENERALLY EFFECTIVE EXCEPT IN

THE METHOD OFTEN SAVES LARGE SUMS OF MONEY AND CAN

CE-464 Ground Improvement

BEST METHOD IN THE INSTALLATION OF SAND DRAINS IS

TIMES FOR CONSOLIDATION CHANGES FROM MONTHS TO A

IF Pf < c' DO NOT USE SAND DRAINS.

CE-464 Ground Improvement

ON THE OTHER HAND PREDICTIONS OF RATES OF

SITE INVESTIGATION EFFORTS MUST BE OF GOOD QUALITY.

CE-464 Ground Improvement

DISCHARGE CAPACITY OF THE DRAINS = qw

WHEN qw / kc < 3000 m2 WELL RESISTANCE CAN NOT BE

CE-464 Ground Improvement

ds = DIAMETER OF THE DISTURBED ZONE

CE-464 Ground Improvement

METHODS FOR COHESIONLESS SOILS :

CE-464 Ground Improvement

THIS IS NOT A NEW METHOD. (50 YEARS OLD). THE

A) THE VIBRATOR OR VIBROFLOT

VIBROFLOT IS A CYLINDRICAL PROBE WHICH PENETRATES

CE-464 Ground Improvement

CE-464 Ground Improvement

CE-464 Ground Improvement

THERE ARE ALSO CASES ON RECORD WITH VERY FINE

CE-464 Ground Improvement

qall AFTER TREATMENT IS USUALLY AROUND 2 - 3 kg/cm 2

THE DESIGN OF A VIBROFLOATATION TREATMENT REQUIRES

CE-464 Ground Improvement

TRIANGULAR PATTERN PREFERRED DUE TO GREATEST

D, IS NOT INCREASED ABOVE 70% AT POINTS MORE THAN 1

THE OVERLAPPING EFFECT FOR SPACINGS GREATER THAN