Lecture 6 & 7

Signal conditioning
Instrumentation and Measurements
 Resistance
• Opposition to the flow of electric current
R α L/A
R = ρL/A

Resistivity
The resistivity r of a material is the resistance to current flow between the opposite
faces of a unit cube of the material (ohm per unit length).
ρ= RA/L
• A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements 
electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to
reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and
terminate transmission lines, among other uses. High-power resistors that can
dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat, may be used as part of motor
controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors
have resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating
voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume
control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or
chemical activity.
• Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be
composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented within 
integrated circuits.
• The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial
resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The
nominal value of the resistance falls within the manufacturing tolerance, indicated on
the component.
 Temperature Effect on Resistance
• The resistivity is temperature dependent, usually having a positive temperature
coefficient (resistance increases as temperature increases), except for some metal
oxides and semiconductors which have a negative temperature coefficient.

• The variation of resistance with temperature is given by

Around 0oC the change in resistance is linear

 Temperature Coefficient of Resistance (α)

• The fractional change in resistance per kelvin rise in temperature.

α = (Rt-Ro)/Rot

Prove:
α= (Rt-Ro)/Rot = (ρt- ρo)/ ρot
• Example 1:
Current of 0.75 A flows through an iron wire when a battery of 1.5 V is
connected across its end. The length of the wire is 5 m, while the cross
sectional area of the wire is 2.5 x 10-7m2. compute the resistivity of the
iron wire.
Example 2:
Compare the energy loss of transmitting 5000 W of electrical power over power
lines with an electrical resistance of 10 Ω using a supply voltage of 5000 V and
the loss of transmitting the same power using a supply voltage of 1000 V through
the same power lines.
Example 3:

• What is the current flowing in the resistor network shown

Resistors
• Resistors are used as voltage dividers..
• Carbon resistors are most common in electrical devices. They consists
of high grade ceramic rod/cone called substrate on which deposited a
thin film of carbon.
• The numeric values of the resistors are indicated by a color code
which consists of four bands.
Color codes for Resistors
BBROYGBVGW
B BLACK 0
B BROWN 1
R RED 2
O ORANGE 3
Y YELLOW 4
G GREEN 5
B BLUE 6
V VIOLET 7
G GREY 8
W WHITE 9
 How to Read a Resistor

Always read resistors from left to right.

- Resistors never start with a metallic band on the left.
If you have a resistor with a gold or silver band on one
end, you have a 5% or 10% tolerance resistor. Position
the resistor with this band on the right side and
again read your resistor from left to right.
Zero Ohm Resistor
• It is a wire link use to connect traces on a printed circuit board.

• A zero-ohm resistor is a resistor that has almost no resistance at all;

its resistance is near 0 ohms. The actual resistance, though, is very
small. ... The actual resistance of a 1/8W zero-ohm resistor is about
0.004Ω, whereas a 1/4W zero-ohm resistor has a resistance of
approximately 0.003Ω.
Uses of resistors
Resistors are passive devices, it dissipates power but not provide
power. following are the application of resistors.
• The resistors are used to regulate current flow in LEDs by controlling
the amount of voltage reaching at the transistors.
• Resistors can be used to terminate a transmission line and prevent
reflections.
• Using resistors along with capacitors together can create a timing
source necessary for light flashers or sirens.
 Signal conditioning
• In electronics, signal conditioning means manipulating an analog signal in such a
way that it meets the requirements of the next stage for further processing. Most
common use is in analog-to-digital converters
• In control engineering applications, it is common to have a sensing stage (which
consists of a sensor), a signal conditioning stage (where usually amplification of the
signal is done) and a processing stage (normally carried out by an ADC* and a 
micro-controller). Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are commonly employed to carry
out the amplification of the signal in the signal conditioning stage. In some
transducers this feature will come inherent for eg in hall effect sensors**
* An ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) is an electronic circuit whose digital output is
proportional to its analog input. Effectively it “measures” the input voltage and gives a
binary output number proportional to its size.
** Using magnetic fields, Hall effect sensors are used to detect variables such as the
proximity, speed, or displacement of a mechanical system. Hall effect sensors are non-
contact, which means that they do not have to come in contact with a physical
element.
 Inputs
• Signal inputs accepted by signal conditioners include DC voltage and
current, AC voltage and current, frequency and electric charge.
• Sensor inputs be  accelerometer, thermocouple, thermistor, 
resistance thermometer, strain gauge or bridge, etc. Specialized
inputs include encoder, counter or tachometer, timer or clock, relay
or switch, and other specialized inputs. Outputs for signal
conditioning equipment can be voltage, current, frequency, timer or
counter, relay, resistance or potentiometer, and other specialized
outputs
• An accelerometer is an electromechanical device used to measure acceleration forces.
Such forces may be static, like the continuous force of gravity or, as is the case with many
mobile devices, dynamic to sense movement or vibrations. Acceleration is the
measurement of the change in velocity, or speed divided by time.
• A Thermocouple is a sensor used to measure temperature. Thermocouples consist of two
wire legs made from different metals. The wires legs are welded together at one end,
creating a junction. This junction is where the temperature is measured. When the
junction experiences a change in temperature, a voltage is created.
• A thermistor is a resistance thermometer, or a resistor whose resistance is dependent on
temperature. The term is a combination of “thermal” and “resistor”. It is made of metallic
oxides, pressed into a bead, disk, or cylindrical shape and then encapsulated with an
impermeable material such as epoxy or glass.
• A Strain gauge (sometimes refered to as a Strain gage) is a sensor whose resistance varies
with applied force; It converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in
electrical resistance which can then be measured. When external forces are applied to a
stationary object, stress and strain are the result.
• Relays are electromechanical devices that use an electromagnet to operate a pair of
movable contacts from an open position to a closed position.
 Signal conditioning processes
• Signal conditioning can include amplification, filtering, converting,
range matching, isolation and any other processes required to make
sensor output suitable for processing after conditioning.
• Filtering : Filters can remove unwanted frequency components from the
signal to get a proper signal. Filters can change the amplitude and phase
characteristics of a signal with respect to frequency. Filters won't add
new frequencies to the input signal, filters are used in many electronic
systems.
• Amplifying: An instrumentation amplifier is used to amplify very low-
level signals, rejecting noise and interference signals. Examples can be
heartbeats, blood pressure, temperature, earthquakes and so on.
Signal conditioning processes contd……
• Excitation: Techniques In data-acquisition systems, it's not uncommon to see constant-
voltage excitation used for strain and pressure sensors, while constant
current excitation is used to excite resistive sensors such as RTDs or thermistors
• Linearization: Linearization involves creating a linear approximation of a nonlinear system that
is valid in a small region around the operating or trim point, a steady-state condition in which all
model states are constant.
• Cold Junction Compensation (Cold, or reference junction, is the end of a thermocouple that
provides a reference point. A hot junction is the measuring point on a temperature sensor,
most commonly a thermocouple. It is the point where the positive and negative legs of the
thermocouple wire are welded together.)
• Electrical Isolation: Isolation is a method of physically and electrically separating two distinct
parts of an instrument. When the term isolation is used with instruments, it most likely refers
to electrical isolation, which means that current does not flow between the two parts of the
system that are isolated from each other.
 Recording devices
•  recorder is a device that records some signal. Many 
measuring instruments also record the quantities they measure
• Data Logger: A data logger (also datalogger or data recorder) is an
electronic device that records data over time or in relation to location
either with a built in instrument or sensor or via external instruments
and sensors. Increasingly, but not entirely, they are based on a digital
processor (or computer).