Australian College of Kuwait

School of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Dr. Sayed M. Soleimani, P.E., P.Eng.

15FCVE222: Steel Structures

Week 5: Stability of Structures, Equations of Equilibrium,

Reactions of Structures, Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams
Beams, Loads and Support Reactions
 Beams are usually long, straight, solid bars, having a uniform
cross-sectional shape and a constant cross-sectional area.
 They are made from rolled structural steel, reinforced concrete,
timber, or similar materials.
 In most cases, beams are placed in a horizontal position and
carry vertical loads, i.e. forces which are perpendicular to the
axis of the beam.
 The majority of loads supported by horizontal beams are usually
weights, i.e. forces directed vertically downwards due to gravity acting
on the various masses resting on the beam.
 however, some loads, which are not weights, are directly
vertically upwards, or are inclined to the axis of a horizontal
beam.
Slide 2 of 82
Beams, Loads and Support Reactions
 Beams are generally classified in accordance with the way in
which they are supported:
 A simply supported beam is pinned at one end and roller supported
at the other.
 An overhanging beam rests on two similar supports, but extends
beyond one or both of its supports.
 A cantilever beam is rigidly fixed at one end and free at the other.

Slide 3 of 82
Beams, Loads and Support Reactions
 A beam may be subjected to concentrated loads, to
distributed loads, or to a combination of both.
 It is common engineering practice in engineering design to
ignore the weight of the beam itself as relatively insignificant
in comparison with all other forces acting on the beam.
 When a beam carries loads and rests on its supports, the
supports react to provide the necessary static balance which
keeps the beam at rest, i.e. in a state of static equilibrium.

Slide 4 of 82
Beams, Loads and Support Reactions
 The kinds of reactions that may exist at any given support
depend on the nature of the support:
 A roller support, can only provide a reaction force which is
perpendicular to the supporting surface, i.e. a vertical reaction to a beam
resting on a horizontal surface (Fig. (a)).
 A pinned support, can provide a vertical and horizontal reactions (Fig.
(b)).
 The supported (fixed) end in a cantilever beam provides the total
reaction against any movement or rotation. The total reaction may
contain a horizontal reaction force, a vertical reaction force, and a
reaction moment that prevents rotation of the beam about its support
(Fig. (c)).

Slide 5 of 82
Beams, Loads and Support Reactions

Slide 6 of 82
Beams, Loads and Support Reactions

Slide 7 of 82
Beams, Loads and Support Reactions
 The three equations of equilibrium are used to determine beam
reactions – if the reactions are only three unknowns – and the
beam in this case is called statically determinate.
• Summation of all forces in horizontal direction must be zero.
• Summation of all forces in vertical direction must be zero.
• Summation of moments from all forces about any one point must be zero.

F  0 H

F  0 V

M  0
Slide 8 of 82
Stability
 Stability
 To ensure equilibrium of a structure or its members:
 Must satisfy equations of equilibrium
 Members must be properly held or constrained by their supports

Slide 9 of 82
Stability
 Partial constraints
 Fewer reactive forces than equations of equilibrium

 Fx  0will not be satisfied
 Member will be unstable

unstable

Slide 10 of 82
Stability
 Improper constraints
 In some cases, unknown forces may equal equations of equilibrium
in number
 However, instability or movement of structure could still occur if
support reactions are concurrent at a point

unstable

Slide 11 of 82
Stability
 Improper constraints

Pd  0

 Rotation about point “O” will take place (see previous slide)
 Similarly instability can occur if all reactive forces are parallel
unstable

Slide 12 of 82
Stability
 Example 1
 Classify each of the structures as stable or unstable. The structures
are subjected to arbitrary external loads that are assumed to be
known.
unstable
stable

unstable
unstable

Slide 13 of 82
Simply Supported Beams
 To find the reactions of a simply supported beam, the following
steps are followed:
 Step 1:
take moments about one of the supports and equate the algebraic sum of all
moments to zero. This gives an equation in which the reaction force at the
opposite support is the only unknown. Solve for this unknown reaction force.
 Step 2:
Equate the algebraic sum of all vertical forces, including reactions, to zero, and
solve for the second unknown reaction force.
 Step 3:
In the absence of any horizontal forces, the horizontal reaction is not there.

Slide 14 of 82
Simply Supported Beams
Example 2
Calculate the reactions for simply supported beam shown here.

12 kN 18 kN

FL FR
3m 2m 1m

Slide 15 of 82
Simply Supported Beams
Solution
The FL and FR stand for the reaction forces at the left-hand and right-hand
supports respectively. Taking moments about the left-hand support:

  

Note that the moment of FL about the left-hand support is zero because the
force passes through the point there. Remember also that by the
convention, clockwise moments are taken to be positive and anticlockwise
moments are negative.
Summation of vertical forces:

  and 

Slide 16 of 82
Simply Supported Beams
Here again the sign convention is observed – upward forces are positive
and downward forces are negative.
Alternatively, FL could also be found by taking moments about the right-
hand support, as follows:

  

In this case the result may be checked by the summation of vertical forces:

Slide 17 of 82
Overhanging Beams
 If a beam has an overhanging portion extending beyond the
supports on one or both sides, the procedure to be followed
is exactly the same as described above.

 Extra care should be exercised in distinguishing between

positive (clockwise) moments and negative
(anticlockwise) moments relative to the selected reference
point,.

Slide 18 of 82
 Overhanging Beams
Example 3
Calculate the reactions for the beam shown here.
8 kN
4 kN
2 kN

FL FR

1m 3m 2m 3m

Solution
Take the moment about the left-hand support:

Summation of vertical forces:

  
Slide 19 of 82
Cantilever Beams
 In the case of a cantilever beam with concentrated load, there is
only one support at the fixed end of the beam, where the total
reaction is a combination of a vertical reaction force (F) and a
reaction moment (M) exerted by the support.
Example 3
Calculate the reactions for the cantilever beam shown here.
3 kN 2 kN
M

2m 1m

Slide 20 of 82
 Cantilever Beams
Solution
Summation of moments taken about the support:
 
When setting up this equation, the unknown reaction moment M must be included
in the total sum of all moments acting on the beam at the support. Note carefully
how forces are multiplied by their respective distances from the support, while
reaction moment is entered as a single entity represented by the symbol M. note
also that the negative sign denotes the anticipated anticlockwise sense of the
reaction moment, as shown on the diagram.
Solving for M establishes the magnitude and units of the reaction moment:
𝑀=12
  𝑘𝑁 .𝑚
Summation of vertical forces:
 
Hence the reaction force at the support is 5 kN.

Slide 21 of 82
Uniformly Distributed Loads
 Quite frequently, forces acting on a beam are applied over an
extended portion of a beam, such as the weight of goods
distributed over the floor of a warehouse, which in turn is
supported by the beams.
 When the intensity of load distribution has a constant value per
unit length of a beam between two points along the beam, the load
is said to be uniformly distributed over that part of the beam.
 Such loads are expressed in units of force per unit length of beam,
i.e. in Newton per meter (N/m).
 When it is necessary to determine reactions which are due, in
whole or in part, to a uniformly distributed load, it is possible to
replace the distributed load by an equivalent concentrated load
located at the midpoint of the load distribution.

Slide 22 of 82
Uniformly Distributed Loads
Example 4
Determine the reactions for the simply supported beam with a
uniformly distributed load of 5 kN/m as well as a single
concentrated load of 22 kN located as shown here.

22 kN
5 kN/m

FL FR

1m 1m 4m

Slide 23 of 82
 Uniformly Distributed Loads
Solution
Here is the intensity of the load distribution is given as 5 kN/m over 4 m. this
means that the total magnitude of the distributed load is:
5 kN / m  4 m  20 kN
The midpoint of this distributed load is located 2 m from the right-hand support.
Therefore, the problem can be restated in terms of the actual concentrated load
plus the equivalent concentrated load, as shown here:
22 kN 20 kN
equivalent of
distributed load

FL F
1m 3m 2m
The usual method of solution can now be followed: R

 M  22kN 1m  20kN  4m  F  6m  0  F  17kN

L R R

 F  F  22kN  20kN  17kN  0  F  25kN

v L L

Slide 24 of 82
Uniformly Distributed Loads
Example 5
Determine the reactions for a cantilever beam with a uniformly
distributed load of 3 kN/m as well as a single concentrated load
of 4 kN located as shown here.

4 kN
M 3 kN/m

2m

Slide 25 of 82
 Uniformly Distributed Loads
Solution
The solution follows similar lines. The total magnitude of the distributed load is:
3kN / m  2m  6kN
The midpoint of this distributed load is located 1 m from the support, therefore, the
problem becomes as shown in here:
6 kN 4 kN
equivalent load
M

F
1m 1m

The usual solution for a cantilever beam follows:

 M  6kN 1m  4kN  2m  M  0  M  14kN .m
 F  F  6kN  4kN  0  F  10kN
Slide 26 of 82
Axial Loads
 If a load is inclined to the axis of a beam at an angle other
than 90o, the load can be resolved into two components, one
at right angles to the beam and the other along the axis of the
beam.
 In the case of a horizontal beam, the transverse component
of an inclined load is vertical, and the axial component is
horizontal.
 The transverse (vertical) component of the load can be included
with any other vertical loads when calculating moments about
supports and when working out vertical reaction forces.
 The axial (horizontal) component is transmitted along the axis of
the beam to that support which is capable of resisting horizontal
forces, i.e. to the pinned or fixed support.
Slide 27 of 82
Axial Loads
Example 6
Determine all support reactions for the beam shown here.

5 kN

FH 60o

FL FR

2.3 m 0.7 m

Slide 28 of 82
 Axial Loads
Solution
Resolve the inclined force into two components:

Vertical component: 5  sin 60o  4.33kN

Horizontal component: 5  cos 60  2.50kN
o

Now the problem is reduced to vertical and horizontal forces only, as shown here.
4.33 kN

FH 2.5 kN

FL FR

2.3 m 0.7 m

Slide 29 of 82
 Axial Loads
Summation of horizontal forces:

F H  FH  2.5kN  0  FH  2.5kN

Hence the horizontal reaction at the pinned support is 2.5 kN. Summation of
moments about the left-hand support:

M L  4.33kN  2.3m  FR  3m  0  FR  3.32kN

Hence the vertical reaction force at the right-hand support is 3.32 kN. Summation
of vertical forces:

F  F L  4.33kN  3.32kN  0  FL  1.01kN

Therefore, the vertical reaction force at the left-hand support is 1.01 kN.

Slide 30 of 82
Sign Convention
 Although the choice is arbitrary, the convention shown has been widely
accepted in structural engineering

Slide 31 of 82
Sign Convention

Positive Axial Force:

Positive Shear Force:

Positive Moment:

Slide 32 of 82
Shear Force
 Consider two portions of a beam cut by an imaginary section
transverse to the beam, the effect of the unbalanced forces on
each part of the beam is to move the left-hand portion upwards
relative to the right-hand portion.
 The reason that we never actually observe such movement
between parts of a solid beam is because internal forces exist
within the material of the beam in the plate of the imaginary
cross-section which resist the tendency for such movement.
 The magnitude of the internal force at any given cross-section
depends on the sum of the external forces acting on each
portion of the beam to one side of the cross-section.
 This internal resistance force is called shear force.

Slide 33 of 82
Shear Force

Slide 34 of 82
Shear Force
 The magnitude of the shear force at any cross-section of a
beam is equal to the algebraic sum of all external forces,
i.e. loads and reactions, acting on either portion of the
beam to one side of the section only.
 The sign convention commonly adopted is that shear force
at a cross-section is positive if it tends to push the left-
hand portion of the beam upwards in relation to the right-
hand portion.

Slide 35 of 82
Shear Force Diagrams
 If large number of forces is involved, a graphical method
of representing results, called a shear force diagram, has
been developed.
 It consists simply of plotting the values obtained by
calculation against the distance measured along the beam.
 It should be noted that in the space between the two
adjacent external forces, shear force is constant
irrespective of the actual position of the reference cross-
section.
 The shear force diagram will consist of horizontal straight
lines, with step changes under each load.

Slide 36 of 82
Shear Force Diagrams
 Important notes:
 The shear force diagram should be plotted directly below the
space diagram of the beam, the horizontal distance representing
the length of the beam.
 Vertical lines are drawn to some convenient scale, up from the
zero line to represent positive shear force, and down for
negative shear force.
 Horizontal lines represent constant shear force between loads.
 A step change in magnitude equal to the load occurs under each
load.

Slide 37 of 82
Shear Forces Due to Distributed Loads
 When all or part of a beam is subjected to a uniformly
distributed load of known intensity, the shear force under
the distributed load varies uniformly along the beam and
can be illustrated on the shear force diagram by an
inclined straight line.

Slide 38 of 82
Bending Moment
 In addition to internal shear forces, every cross-section in
a beam may also experience an internal moment called a
bending moment.
 Consider the same two portions of a beam, cut by an
imaginary reference cross-section.

Slide 39 of 82
Bending Moment
 Another effect of the unbalanced forces on each part of the
beam, is that the beam bends.
 The amount of bending tendency at the reference cross-
section is measured by the summation of the moments about
the cross-section of all external forces on a portion of the
beam to one side of the cross-section.
 The sum of the moments is called the bending moment.
 The magnitude of the bending moment at any cross-section
of a beam is equal to the algebraic sum of the moments,
about the cross-section, of all external forces, i.e. loads and
reactions, acting on either portion of the beam to one side of
the section only.
Slide 40 of 82
Bending Moment
 The usual sign convention is that bending moment is
positive if it produces bending in a beam which is convex
downwards.

Slide 41 of 82
Bending Moment Diagrams
 Information about bending moments can be conveniently
represented by means of a bending moment diagram,
which is a plot of the values obtained by calculation,
against the distance measured along the beam.
 It can be shown mathematically that in the spaces between
two adjacent external forces, bending moment varies
directly with the distance measured along the beam.
 The bending moment diagram consists of straight lines
joining the points representing the computed magnitude of
the bending moment at each load-bearing point.

Slide 42 of 82
Position of Maximum Bending Moment
 The bending moment is at a maximum at points where the
shear force diagram changes from positive to negative, i.e.
passes through the zero axis.

 In many engineering practices, only the maximum value

of the bending moment needs to be known corresponding
to the point where the beam is most likely to fail under
bending.

Slide 43 of 82
Bending Moments Due to Distributed Loads
 When part of a beam is subjected to a uniformly
distributed load of known intensity, the bending moment
under the distributed load varies as the square of the
distance from the reference cross-section.

 This variation is illustrated on bending moment diagrams

by a second order curve, a parabola.

Slide 44 of 82
Shear and Moment Diagrams using the
Graphical Solution
 A simpler method to construct shear and moment diagram,
one that is based on two differential equations that exist
among distributed load, shear and moment.

Slide 45 of 82
Shear and Moment Diagrams using the
Graphical Solution

Slide 46 of 82
Shear and Moment Diagrams using the
Graphical Solution

Slide 47 of 82
Shear and Moment Diagrams using the
Graphical Solution

Slide 48 of 82
Shear and Moment Diagrams using the
Graphical Solution
 Relation between concentrated load and shear:
The shear will change the same amount of the load and at
the same direction (load up → the shear will jump up).
 Relation between applied couple moment and bending
moment:
Clock wise moment will cause jump in the bending
moment diagram in the positive side.

Slide 49 of 82
Shear and Moment Diagrams using the
Graphical Solution

Slide 50 of 82
Shear and Moment Diagrams using the
Graphical Solution

Slide 51 of 82
Shear and Moment Diagrams using the
Graphical Solution
 Summary for all cases:

Slide 52 of 82
Shear and Moment Diagrams using the
Graphical Solution
 Procedure for analysis:
 Support reactions
 Determine support reactions and resolve forces acting on the beam
into components that are perpendicular and parallel to beam’s axis
 Shear diagram
 Establish V and x axes
 Plot known values of shear at two ends of the beam
 Since dV/dx = w, slope of the shear diagram at any point is equal to
the intensity of the distributed loading at that point
 To find numerical value of shear at a point, use method of sections and
equation of equilibrium or by using the fact that change in the shear
between any two points is equal to area under the load diagram
between the two points
 If w(x) is a curve of degree n, V(x) will be a curve of degree n+1

Slide 53 of 82
Shear and Moment Diagrams using the
Graphical Solution
 Procedure for analysis:
 Moment diagram
 Establish M and x axes and plot known values of the moment at
the ends of the beam
 Since dM/dx = V, slope of the moment diagram at any point is
equal to the shear at the point
 At point where shear is zero, dM/dx = 0 and therefore this will be
a point of maximum or minimum moment
 If numerical value of moment is to be determined at the point,
use method of sections and equation of equilibrium, or by using
the fact that change in moment between any two points is equal
to area under shear diagram between the two points
 If V(x) is a curve of degree n, M(x) will be a curve of degree n+1

Slide 54 of 82
Shear and Moment Diagrams using the
Graphical Solution
Example 7
Draw the shear force diagram (SFD) and the bending moment
diagram (BMD).

Slide 55 of 82
Shear and Moment Diagrams using the
Graphical Solution

Slide 56 of 82
Shear and Moment Diagrams using the
Graphical Solution

Slide 57 of 82
Shear and Moment Diagrams using the
Graphical Solution
Example 8
Draw the shear force diagram (SFD) and the bending moment
diagram (BMD).

Slide 58 of 82
Shear and Moment Diagrams using the
Graphical Solution

Slide 59 of 82
Shear and Moment Diagrams using the
Graphical Solution

Slide 60 of 82
Shear and Moment Diagrams using the
Graphical Solution
Example 9
Draw the shear force diagram (SFD) and the bending moment
diagram (BMD).

Slide 61 of 82
Shear and Moment Diagrams using the
Graphical Solution

Slide 62 of 82
Shear and Moment Diagrams using the
Graphical Solution

Slide 63 of 82
 Appendix

64
Shear Force
Example 10
Determine the shear forces at the three cross-sections for the
beam and loading shown here.

Slide 65 of 82
 Shear Force
Solution
It is usually convenient to start from the left-hand side and consider all forces to
the left of the respective cross-sections.
Shear force at cross-section 1:

SF1   F  10kN (positive shear force)

Shear force at cross-section 2:

SF2   F  10kN  8kN  2kN (positive shear force)

Slide 66 of 82
 Shear Force
Shear force at cross-section 3:

SF3   F  10kN  8kN  6kN

 4kN (negative shear force)

Shear force at cross-section 4:

SF4   F  10kN  8kN  6kN  4kN

 8kN (negative shear force)

Slide 67 of 82
Shear Force Diagrams
Example 11
Draw the shear force diagram (SFD) for the beam in Example 10.

Slide 68 of 82
Shear Forces Due to Distributed Loads
Example 12
Calculate the shear forces and draw the shear force diagram
(SFD) for the beam shown here.

Slide 69 of 82
 Shear Forces Due to Distributed Loads
Solution
Shear forces are calculated for cross-sections 1, 2 and 3 as follows:
SF1 = 17 kN; SF2 = 17 kN - 12 kN = 5 kN; SF3 = 17 kN – 12 kN – (4 kN/m× 6 m)
= -19 kN
When constructing the shear force diagram, draw an inclined straight line under
the distributed load, connecting the ordinates just to the left (SF 2 = 5 kN) and just
to the right (SF3 = -19 kN) of the load distribution.
Notice carefully where the shear force line intersects with the horizontal zero base
line. This point has a special significance (maximum moment). Its precise location
x with respect to point 2 can be calculated simply by dividing shear force at point 2
by the intensity of the distributed load:
5kN
x  1.25m
4kN / m

Therefore, shear force is equal to zero at the point 6.25 m from the left-hand
support.
Slide 70 of 82
Bending Moment
Example 13
For the beam and loading shown here, determine the bending
moments at the three points under the applied forces.

Slide 71 of 82
 Bending Moment
Solution
In the case of bending moment calculations, it is convenient to select the reference
cross-sections at the points of application of external loads. Again, we will start
from the left-hand side and consider all forces to the left of the respective cross-
sections.
Bending moment at cross-section 1:
BM 1   M
 10kN  2m  20kN .m
Bending moment at cross-section 2:

BM 2   M
 10kN  4m  8kN  2m
 24kN .m
Slide 72 of 82
 Bending Moment
Bending moment at cross-section 3:

BM 3   M
 10kN  6m  8kN  4m  6kN  2m
 16kN .m

Slide 73 of 82
 Bending Moment Diagrams
Example 14
Draw the bending moment diagram (BMD) for the beam in
Example 10.

Solution
The bending moment diagram is usually plotted directly below the shear force
diagram using the same horizontal scale along the length of the beam. Vertical
lines are drawn to some convenient scale, up from zero line for positive bending
moments and down for negative bending moments, under each of the external
forces acting on the beam. The points obtained in this manner are joined by
straight lines. Magnitudes of bending moments can be indicated on the diagram
and vertical crosshatching can be used for clarity (see Figure on the next slide)

Slide 74 of 82
Bending Moment Diagrams

Slide 75 of 82
Bending Moments Due to Distributed Loads
Example 15
Refer to the beam in Example 12. Calculate the bending moments
and draw the bending moment diagram (BMD).

Slide 76 of 82
 Bending Moments Due to Distributed Loads
Solution
Bending moments for points 1, 2 and 3 are obtained by simple calculations:

BM1 = 0; BM2 = 17 kN × 3 m = 51 kN.m; BM3 = 17 kN × 5 m – 12 kN × 2 m = 61 kN.m

When calculating the bending moment at point 4, we take into account the entire
distributed load, which is equivalent to:

4 kN/m × 6 m = 24 kN
with the centre of the distribution 3 m to the left of point 4. Hence:

BM4 = 17 kN × 11 m – 12 kN × 8 m – 24 kN × 3 m = 19 kN.m
BM5 = 0
Slide 77 of 82
 Bending Moments Due to Distributed Loads
We know that maximum bending moment must occur where shear force is zero.
Furthermore, we were able to establish that this point happens to be 6.25 m from
the left-hand support. All that remains now is to calculate the bending moment at
this point, and it will have to be the maximum value of bending moment in the
beam.
Now, take moments of all forces which lie to the left of the 6.25 m point. This
calculation must include the moment of that portion of the distributed load which
is also to the left of the point.

1.25m
BM max  17 kN  6.25m  12kN  3.25m  ( 4kN / m  1.25m)   64.1kN .m
2

This value should be shown on the bending moment diagram along with all other
principal values of bending moment. The bending moment diagram is then
completed by drawing a smooth curve to connect the maximum bending moment
with the bending moments on either side of it, i.e., points 3 and 4.
Slide 78 of 82
Bending Moments Due to Distributed Loads

Slide 79 of 82
References
 Val Ivanoff, 2010, Engineering Mechanics: An
introduction to Statics, Dynamics and Strength of
materials, McGraw-Hill, pp. 108-119 (Chapter 7) & pp.
355-367 (Chapter 28)

 R.C. Hibbeler, 2012, Structural Analysis, 8th edition,

Pearson Education, pp. 48-58 (Chapter 2)

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