Environmental Health

Dr. Fazal
 Environment
• The term environment implies all the external
factors -
• living and non-living, material and non-
material – which surround man.
• In its modern concept, environment includes
not only the water, air~ and soil that form our
environment but also the social and economic
conditions under which we live.
 Cont’d
For descriptive purpose, environment has been
divided
into three components, all closely related :
i) Physical : Water, air, soil, housing, wastes,
radiation, etc.
ii) Biologic : Plant and animal life including bacteria,
viruses, insects, rodents and animals.
iii) Social : Customs, culture, habits, income,
occupation, religion etc.
The key to mans health lies largely in his environment. In
fact, much of mans ill-health can be traced to adverse
environmental factors such as water pollution, soil pollution,
air pollution, poor housing conditions, presence of animal
reservoirs and insect vectors of diseases which pose a
constant threat to mans health. Often man is responsible for
the pollution of his environment through urbanization,
industrialization and other human activities. In 1972 the UN
• In 1972 the UN
• conference on the Human Environment focussed
worldwide
• attention on the environmental hazards that threaten
human
• beings. To facilitate work in this area, WHO has compiled
&
• wide-ranging survey of environmental hazards to human
• health
• The
term "environmental sanitation" has been
defined by WHO
as "the control of all those . factors in mans
physical
environment which exercise or may exercise a
deleterious
effect on his physical development, health and
survival".
• The immediate environment of man
comprises of air on
which depends all forms of life. Apart from
supplying the
life-giving oxygen, air and atmospheric
conditions serve
several functions.
• The human body is cooled by the air
contact; the special senses of hearing and smell function
through air-transmitted stimuli ; disease agents may be
conveyed by air. Pollution of air by dust, smoke, toxic gases
and chemical vapours has resulted in sickness and death.
Mans adventure into outer space has broadened our
concept of air environment. Human beings need a
continuous supply of air to exist. The requirement for air is
relatively constant (about 10-20m3 per day)
• Composition
• Air is a mechanical mixture of gases. The normal
composition of external air by volume Is approximately as
follows: Nitrogen - 78.1 per cent; Oxygen - 20.93 per cent;
Carbon dioxide - 0.03 per cent. Tfie balance is made up of
other gases which occur in traces, e.g., argon, neon,
krypton, xenon and helium. In addition to these gases, air
also contains water vapour, traces of ammonia and
suspended matter such as dust, bacteria, spores and
vegetable debris.
• Air is rendered impure by CI) Respiration of
men and
animals (2) Combustion of coal, gas, oil, etc.
(3) Decomposition of organic matter and C4)
Trade, traffic
and manufacturing processes which give off
dust, fumes,
vapours and gases
• Under ordinary conditions, the
composition of outdoor air is remarkably constant. This is
brought about by certain self-cleansing mechanisms which
operate in nature (1) Wind : Wind dilutes and sweeps away
the impurities by its movement. Because of wind movement,
impurities do.not accumulate in any one place; (2) Sunlight :
The atmospheric temperature and sunlight play their own
part by oxidizing impurities, and killing bacteria; C3) Rain : It
cleanses the atmosphere by removing the suspended and
gaseous impurities; (4) P/ant life : The green plants utilize
the carbon dioxide and generate oxygen; this process is
reversed during the night time. When the rate of pollution
becomes too high or when the cleansing process becomes
ineffective, it constitutes a health hazard.
AIR POLLUTION

The phenomenon called “pollution” is an inescapable

consequence of the presence of man and his activities. The
term “air pollution" signifies the presence in the ambient
(surrounding) atmosphere of substances (e.g., gases,
mixtures of gases and particulated matter) generated by the
activities of man in concentrations that interfere with human
health, safety or comfort, or injurious to vegetation and
animals and other environmental media resulting in
chemicals entering the food chain or being present in
drinking-water and thereby constituting additional source of
nhuman exposure.
• The direct effect of air pollutants on
• plants, animals and soil can influence the
structure and
• function of ecosystems, including self
regulation ability,
• thereby affecting the qualify of life
Air pollutants may be
either emitted into the atmosphere or formed within the
atmosphere itself.

Primary air pollutants : Primary air pollutants are those

that are emitted into the atmosphere from a source such as a
factory chimmey or exhaust pipe, or through suspension of
contaminated dusts by the wind. In principle, therefore, it is
possible to measure the amounts emitted at the source itself.

Secondary air pollutants : Secondary air pollutants are

those formed within the atmosphere itself. They arise from
chemical reactions of primary pollutants, possibly involving
the natural components of the atmosphere, especially
oxygen and water.
Gaseous air pollutants : Gaseous air pollutants are those
present as gases or vapours, i.e. as individual small molecules
capable of passing through filters, provided they do not
adsorb to or chemically react with the filter medium. Gaseous
air pollutants are readily taken into the human respiratory
system, although if water-soluble, they may very quickly be
deposited in the upper respiratory tract and not penetrate to
the deep lung.
Particulate air pollutants : Particulate air pollutants
comprise material in solid or liquid phase suspended in the
atmosphere. Such particles can be either primary or
secondary. and cover a wide range of sizes. Newly formed
secondary particles can be as small as 1-2 pm in diameter,
while coarse dust and sea salt particles can be as large as
100 pm in diameter. (Please note — 1 pm is one millionth of
a metre = 1 micron = 0.001 mm)
Sources of air pollution

The main sources of air pollution are :

(a) AUTOMOBILES : Motor vehicles are a major source of
air pollution throughout the urban areas. They emit
hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen oxides and
particulate matter. In strong sunlight, certain of these
hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen may be converted in
the atmosphere into "photochemical" pollutants of oxidizing
nature. In addition, diesel engines, when misused or badly
adjusted are capable of emitting black smoke and
malodorous fumes.
(b) INDUSTRIES : Industries emit large
amounts of pollutants into the atmosphere. Combustion of
fuel to generate heat and power produces smoke, sulphur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides and fly ash. Petrochemical
industries generate hydrogen fluoride, hydrOchloric acid and
organic halides. Many industries discharge carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, ozone, hydrogen sulphide and
sulphur dioxide. Industries discharge their wastes from high
chimneys at high temperature and high speed.
(c) DOMESTIC SOURCES : Domestic combustion of
coal,
wood or oil is a major source of smoke, dust,
sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides. The London disaster of
air
pollution in 1952 in which thousands had died was
due to
domestic coal burning.
(d) The most direct and important
source of air pollution affecting the health of
many people is
tobacco smoke. Even those who do not smoke
may inhale
the smoke produced by others (“passive
smoking").
• (e) MISCELLANEOUS : These comprise burning
refuse,
• incinerators, pesticide spraying, natural
sources (e.g., wind
• borne dust, fungi, molds, bacteria) and
nuclear energy
• programmes. All these contribute to air
pollution.
More than 100 substances which pollute air have been
Identified. The important ones are carbon monoxide, carbon

dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide, sulphur

trioxide, nitrogen oxides, fluorine compounds, organic
compounds (e.g., hydrocarbons, aldehydes, ketones,

organic acids), metallic contaminants (e.g., arsenic, zinc,

iron resulting from smelting operation), radio-active
compounds, photochemical oxidants (e.g., ozone).
• 1) Carbon monoxide : Carbon monoxide is one of the
• most common and widely distributed air pollutants. it is a
• product of incomplete combustion of carbon containing
• materials, such as in automobiles, industrial process, heating
• facilities and incinerators. Estimates of man-made carbon
• monoxide emission vary from 350 to 600 million tonnes per
• annum (2). Some widespread natural non-biological and
• biological sources have also been identified. Concentrations
• in urban areas depend on weather and traffic density. it
• varies with the density of petrol—powered vehicles and most
• cities have carbon monoxide peak levels that coincide with
• the morning and evening rush-hours.
 Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Colorless, odorless gas
Motor vehicle exhaust, indoor sources
include kerosene or wood burning stoves.
Headaches, reduced mental alertness, heart
attack, cardiovascular diseases, impaired
fetal development, death.
Contribute to the formation of smog.
 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

•Colorless gas that dissolves in water vapor to form

acid, and interact with other gases and particles in
the air.
•Coal-fired power plants, petroleum refineries,
manufacture of sulfuric acid and smelting of ores
containing sulfur.
•Eye irritation, wheezing, chest tightness, shortness
of breath, lung damage.
•Contribute to the formation of acid rain, visibility
impairment, plant and water damage, aesthetic
damage.
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

•Reddish brown, highly reactive gas.

•Motor vehicles, electric utilities, and other
industrial, commercial, and residential sources
that burn fuels.
•Susceptibility to respiratory infections, irritation
of the lung and respiratory symptoms (e.g.,
cough, chest pain, difficulty breathing).
•Contribute to the formation of smog, acid rain,
water quality deterioration, global warming, and
visibility impairment.
Ozone (O3)

•Gaseous pollutant when it is formed in the

troposphere.
•Vehicle exhaust and certain other fumes. 
Formed from other air pollutants in the
presence of sunlight.
•Eye and throat irritation, coughing,
respiratory tract problems, asthma, lung
damage.
•Plant and ecosystem damage.
Lead (Pb)

•Metallic element
•Metal refineries, lead smelters, battery
manufacturers, iron and steel producers.
•Anemia, high blood pressure, brain and
kidney damage, neurological disorders,
cancer, lowered IQ.
•Affects animals and plants, affects aquatic
ecosystems.
Particulate Matter (PM)

•Very small particles of soot, dust, or other

matter, including tiny droplets of liquids.
•Diesel engines, power plants, industries,
windblown dust, wood stoves.
•Eye irritation, asthma, bronchitis, lung
damage, cancer, heavy metal poisoning,
cardiovascular effects.
•Visibility impairment, atmospheric deposition,
aesthetic damage.
• 4) Carbon dioxide : This is not commonly regarded as
• an air pollutant, although man generates enormous amount
• of it in combustion process using coal, oil and gas. Carbon
• dioxide is a natural constituent of the air. it does not take
• part in any significant chemical reactions with other
• substances in the air. However, its global concentration is
• rising above the natural level by an amount that could
• increase global temperature enough to affect climate
•  
• markedly (6).
• (5) Hydrocarbons : Man-made sources of hydrocarbons
• include incineration, combustion of coal, wood,
processing
• and use of petroleum. Hydrocarbons exert their
pollutant
• action by taking part in the chemical reactions that
cause
• photochemical smog.
•  
(6) Cadmium : The steel industry, waste incineration,
volcanic action and zinc production seem to account for the
largest emissions. incineration is increasingly chosen as a
method of refuse disposal in European countries. This
source of atmospheric cadmium pollution is of growing
concern. Tobacco contains cadmium, and smoking may
contribute significantly to the uptake of cadmium
(7) Hydrogen sulphide : Human activities can release
naturally occurring hydrogen sulphide into ambient air. in
Industry, hydrogen sulphide can be formed whenever
elemental sulphur or sulphur containing compounds come in
contact with organic material at high temperatures.
Hydrogen sulphide is formed during coke production, in
viscose rayon production, waste-water treatment plants,
wood pulp production using the sulphate method, sulphur
extraction process, oil refining and in tanning industry.
Hydrogen sulphide is the main toxic substance involved in
livestock rearing systems with liquid manure storage (7).
(11) Particulate matter : Airborne particulate matter
represents a complex mixture of organic and inorganic
substance. Particles are generally classified by their size
measured in um (micro metre, i.e. one millionth of a metre).
Initially guidelines were directed at very general measure of
PM concentration including total suspended particulate
(TSP) matter in US, and black smoke (BS) in Europe.
• The
• particulate matter of diameter smaller than 2.5 pm are more
• dangerous since, when inhaled, they may reach the
• peripheral regions of the bronchioles, and interfere with gas
• exchange inside the lungs. The effects of PM on health occur
• at levels of exposure currently being experienced by most
• urban and rural populations in both developed and
• developing countries. Chronic exposure to particles
• contributes to the risk of developing cardiovascular and
• respiratory diseases, as well as of lung cancer.
In developing
countries, exposure to pollutants from indoor combustion of
solid fuels on open fires or traditional stoves increases the
risk of acute lower respiratory infections and associated
mortatlity among young children; indoor air pollution from
solid fuel use is also a major risk factor for chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease and lung cancer among
adults.
Indoor air pollution (4)

The indoor environment represents an important

microenvironment in which people spend a large part of
their time each day. As a result, indoor air pollution,
originating from both outdoor and indoor sources, is likely
to contribute more to population exposure than the outdoor
environment. The extent and magnitude of consequent
health risks, however, remain poorly understood. The large
number of indoor air pollutants, including chemical and
biological contaminants, and the influence of a variety of
factors such as the nature and location of sources, air
exchange between indoor and outdoor environments, and
individual behaviour make accurate estimations of health
effects very difficult.
(a) Health aspects : The health effects of air pollution
are both immediate and delayed. The immediate effects are
borne by the respiratory system. the resulting state is acute
bronchitis. If the air pollution is intense, it may result even in
immediate death by suffocation. This has taken place in the
air pollution epidemic which occurred in London in 1952.
The delayed effects most commonly linked with air pollution
are chronic bronchitis, lung cancer, bronchial asthma,
emphysema, and respiratory allergies.
Prevention and control of air pollution

The control of air pollution is ultimately an engineering

problem. The WHO has recommended the following
procedures for the prevention and control of air pollution :
(a) Containment .' That is, prevention of escape of toxic
substances into the ambient air. Containment can be
achieved by a variety of engineering methods such as
enclosure, ventilation and air cleaning. A major contribution
in this field is the development of “arresters” for the removal
of contaminants.
• (b) Replacement : That is, replacing a
• technological process causing air pollution, by a new
• process that does not. Increased use of electricity, solar
• power generation, natural gas, and central heating in place
• of coal have greatly helped in smoke reduction. There is a
• move now to reduce lead in petrol which is a cumulative
• poison. In India also deleaded petrol is being used.
(c) Dilution : Dilution is valid so long as it is within the self-
cleaning capacity of the environment. For example, some
air
pollutants are readily removed by vegetation. The
establishment of “green belts” between industrial and
residential areas is an attempt at dilution. The capacity for
dilution is. however, limited and trouble occurs when
the atmosphere is overburdened with pollutants.
• (d) Legislation : Air pollution is controlled in many
countries
• by suitable legislation, e.g., Clean Air Acts. Legislation
• covers such matters as height of chimneys, powers to
local
• authorities to carry out investigations, research and
• education concerning air pollution, creation of
smokeless
• zones and enforcement of standard for ambient air
quality.
• Disinfection of air
•  
• In recent years, disinfection of air has received much
• attention. The methods employed are : (1) MECHANICAL
•  
•
•  
• VENTILATION : This reduces vitiated air and bacterial
• density. (2) ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION : This has been
• found to be effective in special situations such as operation
• theatres and infectious disease wards. Since direct exposure
• to ultraviolet rays is a danger to the eyes and skin, the
• ultraviolet lamps are shaded and located in the upper
• portion of the rooms near the inlet of air. Ultraviolet rays
• have proved effective for general use in public assembly and
• school rooms.
(3) CHEMICAL MISTS : Triethylene glucol
vapours have been found to be effective air
bactericides,
particularly against droplet nuclei and dust. (4) DUST
CONTROL : Application of oil to floors of hospital
wards
reduces the bacterial content of the air. Air
disinfection is still
in the experimental stage.