ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIO

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Motivation
 CONTENTS

 What is motivation?
 What are the variables determining motivation?

 Theories of motivation

- Content Theories
- Process Theories

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Questions to be Answered
• What energizes behaviour?
• What determines the direction of
behaviour?
• What determines the duration of the
behaviour?
• How can motivation be effectively
managed?
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WHAT IS MOTIVATION?
Motivation

Set of forces that energise direct, and sustain

behaviour. These forces can come from the person,
the so-called ‘push’ of internal forces, or they can
come from the environment that surrounds the
person, the so-called ‘pull’ of external forces.

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KEY VARIABLES THAT INFLUENCE
MOTIVATION
Internal External
(Push Forces) (Pull Forces)

Characteristics of Characteristics of Characteristics of

the Individual the Job the Work Situation

Needs Feedback Immediate Social Environment

• for security • amount • supervisor (s)
• for achievement • timing • workgroup members
• for power • subordinates
Attitudes Work Load Tasks
• about self • variety Organisational Actions
• about job • scope • individual rewards
• about supervisor • group rewards
Discretion
• about organisation • reward policies
• how job is performed
•About ethics • training and development
• pressure to perform
Interests
• hobbies, travel, reading
• sports 5
MOTIVATION THEORIES

Content Theories
 Process Theories

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CONTENT THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
 Focus on what needs a person is
trying to satisfy and on what features
of the work environment seem to
satisfy those needs

 Examples include the theories of

Maslow, Herzberg, and McClelland

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CONTENT THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
 Basic physiological needs - These include hunger, thirst, and
sex drives.
 Safety needs - Concern about protection from physical sources
of harm, including shelter from the weather.
 Belonging/affiliation needs - the need for interpersonal
relationships with others that include personal liking, affection,
care, and support.
 Esteem needs - The need for respect, positive regard, status,
and recognition from others.
 Self-actualisation needs - the need to fulfill one’s potential - to
be all that one can be.
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 Content Theories of Motivation

Maslow’s Views of Human Motivation

 According to Maslow’s theory, employees turn their

attention to higher-order needs only when lower-order
needs have been fulfilled.

 Money may be a primary motivator - however, content

theories suggest that workers want or need a variety of
things on the job, including a sense of belonging or
accomplishment.

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CONTENT THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Contributions
 Represented a significant department from economic theories of worker motivation. If
employee doesn’t respond to economic incentives, managers have alternative sources
of employee motivation to consider.

 Provided an important explanation for the changing motivations of workers over time.

 Explained the motivational differences among employees.

Criticisms

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CONTENT THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

Criticisms
 A general review of need hierarchy studies revealed no
consistent support for Maslow’s five need categories or
satisfaction-progression. Workers can distinguish only between
broad categories of lower-order and higher-order needs. Within
these broad categories, there seems to be little relationship
between fulfillment of one need and attention to another.

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CONTENT THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Motivation theory that focuses on the presumed

different effects of intrinsic job factors (motivators)
and extrinsic situational factors (hygiene factors)
 Intrinsic factors or motivators - factors that can
increase job satisfaction
 Extrinsic factors or hygiene factors - factors that can
prevent dissatisfaction but cannot increase satisfaction

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CONTENT THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Motivators: Hygiene Factors:

Factors directly related Elements associated
to doing a job with conditions
surrounding the job

Recognition Supervision

Personal Benefits
Achievement Compensation
Growth
Job
Job
Nature of
Responsibility the work
Working Relations with
conditions 13
co-workers
CONTENT THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Satisfaction
 Differential Effects of Hygiene Factors
and Motivators Motivators
Increase
satisfaction
above the
neutral state

Neutral State
Neither highly dissatisfied nor highly satisfied

Hygiene Factors
Change
dissatisfaction
to a neutral
state
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Dissatisfaction
CONTENT THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
Herzberg’s Views of Human Motivation
 Herzberg’s research suggests that job dissatisfaction and job
satisfaction are caused by different aspects of the work setting.
Job dissatisfaction is high when hygiene factors (like work
conditions and supervision) are inadequate. Job satisfaction is
high when motivators (like achievement and recognition) are
present.

 Management cannot satisfy workers by fulfilling worker

hygiene needs, but unfulfilled hygiene needs can prevent
workers from being satisfied. Motivators, on the other hand,
satisfy workers, but only when management has also fulfilled
their hygiene needs.

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CONTENT THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Contribution
 Contain a relatively simple message: if you want to motivate employees,
focus on improving how the job is structured - what they do- so that they
obtain positive job satisfaction.

Criticisms
 Attributional bias as people may want to perceive and blame features of
the work setting as the causes of their job dissatisfaction, even if this is
not true.
 Blur the distinction between satisfaction and motivation. Studies have
shown that achievement and recognition - two motivators related to
satisfaction according to the theory -- also influence job dissatisfaction

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CONTENT THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
McClelland’s Learned Needs

 Need for affiliation. Concern for establishing

and maintaining social relationships
 Need for power. Concern for reputation,
responsibility, influence, and impact
 Need for achievement. Concern for establishing
and maintaining high levels of performance
quality

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CONTENT THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
McClelland’s Views of Human Motivation
 Needs for affiliation, power, and achievement
are learned, they fit into no static hierarchical
ordering
 Instead, different individuals feel different
needs in differing degrees. Thus, there are
no ‘satisfaction-progression’ or ‘frustration-
regression’ relationships among the needs

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CONTENT THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
McClelland’s Learned Needs
Contribution
 Demonstrated that individuals with strong needs for affiliation have
better attendance records and respond best to performance
feedback that is personally supportive rather than task-related.
 Individuals with strong needs for power to be superior performers,
more likely to occupy supervisory positions, and to be rated higher
in leadership by co-workers.
Criticisms
 Not include the basic needs instinctive to the human condition into
consideration

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CONTENT THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION

Review - Content Theories

 Maslow’s need hierarchy theory highlighted the importance
of non-economic needs.

 Herzberg’s two-factor theory raised in managers’ minds an

important distinction between extrinsic (work context) and
intrinsic (inherent in the work) sources of motivation.

 McClelland’s theory provided the idea that some needs are

learned.

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 CONTENT THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
A Comparison of Three Content Theories of Motivation
Maslow Herzberg McClelland
(Need Hierarchy) (Two-Factor Theory) (Learned Needs)

Self-actualisation Work itself Need for

Responsibility achievement
Motivators
Advancement
Esteem Growth
Higher-
order Achievement Need for
needs
Recognition power
Belongingness,
social, and Quality of interpersonal
affiliation relations among peers, Need for
with supervisors, with
Hygiene subordinates
affiliation
factors
Safety and Job security
Basic security
needs
Physiological Working conditions
Salary 21
CONTENT THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
Implications of Content Theories
 The need to tailor compensation schemes to
different individual needs i.e.

 Cafeteria benefit plans, which allow workers to

individually tailor their mix of fringe benefits
 Incentive schemes that allow workers to choose
their own rewards

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Process Theories of Motivation

 Deal with the way different variables

combine to influence the amount of e
effort people put forth

 Examples include equity theory and

expectancy theory

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PROCESS THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION

Stacy Adams’ Equity Theory

Motivation theory that focuses on individuals’
comparisons of their circumstances with those
of others and how such comparisons may
motivate certain kinds of behaviour

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PROCESS THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
Stacy Adams’ Equity Theory
 Equity is a function of the perceived ration between the inputs a
worker puts into the job and the outputs (consequences) he or she
receives in exchange.

 An individual decides whether the consequences contingent upon

work behaviours are equitable by comparing work inputs (what the
worker brings to or puts into the job) to work outputs (the rewards
received from the work). Work outputs include both those
extrinsic rewards provided by the organisation, such as wages,
and rewards intrinsic to the job, such as the possibility of personal
growth and development.

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PROCESS THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
Stacy Adams’ Equity Theory

 Equity is assessed by making social comparisons

 Equity
 Underpayment inequity
 Overpayment inequity

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 PROCESS THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
Stacy Adams’ Equity Theory
If my outcome = Other’s outcome
and
My inputs = Other’s inputs
If my outcome = Other’s outcome
and
My inputs > Other’s inputs
or
If my outcome < Other’s outcome
and
My inputs = Other’s inputs
Increase own outcomes
(e.g. pay raise, promotion
Equity
Decrease own inputs
(e.g. use less effort at task)
Efforts to
address
inequity Reevaluate other’s inputs
Inequity (e.g. other has an MBA ; I don’t )
Change referent
(e.g. find someone else to
whom to compare self)
Leave
(e.g. find another more equitable job)
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PROCESS THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
Stacy Adams’ Equity Theory

 Contribution
 Attempt to reduce inequity

 Criticism
 Finding in underpayment conditions are generally
consistent with prediction but overpayment conditions
tend to be inconsistent

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PROCESS THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
Victor Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

Motivation theory that focuses on the

thought processes people use when they
face particular choices among alternatives,
particularly alternative courses of action

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 PROCESS THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
Victor Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
 Expectancy
 Perceived likelihood that one has the ability to do something

 Instrumentality
 Perceived likelihood that behaviour will produce various desirable outcomes
(such as monetary rewards or praise).

 Valence
 The value placed on the outcomes.

 Externalities
 Behaviours or consequences of those behaviours that are beyond the worker’s
control, such as the behaviours of another worker or machine reliability.

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PROCESS THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
Victor Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
• Motivation is greatest when a worker believes (s) he has the ability to do
something that has a high probability of leading to a desirable outcome.
• But if the worker does not believe that he or she can do the work, or that
the work will be rewarded, he or she will not be motivated.

Externalities Externalities

Motivation Effort Performance Consequences

Capabilities Contingencies

Instrumentalities Valences
Expectancies
Beliefs about outcome Beliefs about
Beliefs about performance outcome
capabilities contingencies desirability
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PROCESS THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION

Victor Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

 Contributions
 Behaviour is a function of its consequences
 Stronger support in predicting ‘within person’ choices
than ‘between person’ differences

 Criticism
 Assume a greater degree of ‘rationality’ than actually
occurs (e.g. maximizing vs. satisficing)

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CONCLUSION
Summary - Types of Motivation Theories

Content Theories Process Theories

• Personal needs that workers • How different variables can

attempt to satisfy
Focus
• Features in the work
environment that satisfy a
worker’s needs
combine to influence the
amount of effort put forth by
employees

• Maslow’s need hierarchy

• Equity theory
Theories • McClelland’s acquired needs
theory • Expectancy theory

• Herzberg’s two-factor theory

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QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
PAPER

Both equity and expectancy theories suggest that individuals

make conscious, reasonable choices concerning their
performance. Have you observed this kind of behaviour in your
organisation? When would your subordinate be most likely to
do this? Have you ever seriously analysed a work situation in
the ways suggested by these theories and then changed your
subordinate behaviour for a result?

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