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Cellular Telephony
Global Positioning Systems
WiFi
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Extend the experiment: take another wire, place it
parallel to the battery wire but a few centimeters
away from it.
Connect a sensitive voltmeter to this new wire.
Voltmeter will give a measure amount of electricity in
new wire.
When you connect/disconnect the battery wire, you
will read a small voltage and current in the second
wire.
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Observation: by changing the magnetic field in one
wire, we can cause an change in the electric field in
the second wire.
Specifically,
Battery creates electron flow in one wire
Moving electrons create magnetic field around one wire
Magnetic field stretches out to second wire
Electrons flow in second wire whenever
.
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We see then that a message can be converted to
Morse code and then tapped using first wire
(connect/disconnect).
This first wire is a simple
.
The second wire is a .
Voltage changes in second wire can be used to
determine Morse code taps.
When we change current in first wire in time, a
current is induced in second wire.
To create any radio transmitter, create a rapidly
changing electric current in a wire.
This can be done by connecting/disconnecting a
battery. When connected, voltage in wire is 9V.
When disconnected voltage in wire is 0V. Aesult:
square wave signal.
9V
0V
Time (s)
'(
)
A better alternative to square wave is a continuously
varying electric current in a wire.
ã seconds
1 Hz = 1 cycle/second.
If there was a way to see radio waves, we would find
there are literally thousands of different radio waves
(sine waves) traveling thru the air (TV broadcasts,
cell phone conversations, AM/FM broadcasts, etc.)
1 Hz
1000 Hz = 1 KHz (kilohertz)
1,000,000 Hz = 1 MHz (megahertz)
1,000,000,000 Hz = 1 GHz (gigahertz)
(
Any radio setup has two parts: ã
and
Transmitter takes some form of message
(someone¶s voice, pictures for TV set, etc.) encodes
it into a sine wave and transmits it with radio waves.
Combination of encoded message on a radio wave
is commonly referred to as a .
Aeceiver receives radio waves and decodes
messages from the sine waves.
Both transmitter and receiver use antennas to
radiate and capture radio waves.
ã
Combine Antenna
Information
(voice message) Sine
Wave
Aadio Transmitter
Antenna Separate
Information
(voice message)
Sine Wave
If you have a sine wave and a transmitter that is
transmitting the sine wave into space using an
antenna (more antennas later), you have a radio
station.
* ) (
10 kHz to 30 kHz Very Low Frequency (VLF)
30 kHz to 300 kHz Low Frequency (LF)
300 kHz to 3 MHz Medium Frequency (MF)
3 MHz to 30 MHz High Frequency (HF)
30 MHz to 328.6 MHz Very High Frequency (VHF)
328.6 MHz to 2.9 GHz Ultra High Frequency (UHF)
2.9 GHz to 30 GHz Super High Frequency (SHF)
30 GHz and above Extremely High Frequency (EHF)
** ) (
In the U.S., the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) who is able to use which
frequencies for which purposes.
* .
CB Aadio: Half-Duplex
Cellular: Full-Duplex
(
( '
-
-
AM and FM is analog technology.
Most new wireless systems are based on digital
technology.
What¶s the difference?
-
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Analog signals take on a continuous range of values.
Digital signals are quantized to take on one of a set
of possible values.
Quantization
0
/
One way to convert an analog signal to digital is
quantization.
We assume an analog signal takes on a continuous
range of values from xmin to xmax (0 to 1 in previous
slide).
The digital signal is only allowed to take on values
{y1,y2,«yN}, (e.g., {0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3,«0.9, 1.0}.
A quantizer takes the analog signal over an interval
and determines which of the possible values
{y1,y2,«yN} best represents the analog signal in this
range.
More specifically, digital signals used in
communications systems today are # .
0=0 11 = 1011
1=1 12 = 1100
2 = 10 13 = 1101
3 = 11 14 = 1110
4 = 100 15 = 1111
5 = 101 16 = 10000
6 = 110 17 = 10001
7 = 111 18 = 10010
8 = 1000 19 = 10011
9 = 1001 20 = 10100
10 = 1010
Aadio
Voice Waves
(analog signal) Sine wave
Analog to Antenna
1R1
Digital X
0 R -1
Converter
1 1
0 -1
(
( '
There is another very important player in the wireless
game: the physical environment over which radio
waves travel.
Aadio waves can take many different paths to get
from transmitter to receiver.
Transmitter
Aeceiver
Essentially, the radio waves interact with the
physical environment along each of these paths.
There are typically (unless you are in free-space)
many paths from the transmitter to the receiver.
Each path is called a multipath.
The lengths of multipaths are different.
As a result, sine waves along one path reach the
receiver at different times than the same signal
along a different path.
Aeceiver
Transmitter
%
1
Aeceived radio wave along multipath 1
A
=A
-A =A
Originally Aeceived
transmitted radio wave, = w 1
radio wave
When all the radio waves on the multiple paths
reach the receiver¶s antenna, they combine
together.
Some multipaths cancel each other out, some add
up together constructively, some partially cancel
each other, etc. Signal
fades in
and out
A and is
Aadio Channel: distorted
Impact of Physical
-A Environment
Overall combined
Transmitted received signal at
radio wave receive antenna
*
Fading, which is both signal attenuation and
distortion, is a major challenge in wireless
communications.
Overall Aeceived
Signal
Signal along Multipath 2
Transmitter
Aeceiver
-
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If receive antennas are adequately separated, then
paths followed by radio waves to the first antenna
are different from paths followed by radio waves to
the second antenna.
No signals
received from
User 1 this direction
User 3
No signals
received from
this direction
User 2
Cellular
Base Station
User 4
No signals
received from
this direction
]
*
Both previous schemes are antenna techniques to
counter fading.
Designers have developed other methods, e.g.,
coding.
One simple coding method: repetition.
Aepetition: transmit the same signal a few times.
Chances are one of the copies will be received
without deep fades.
(
( '
|
Assume one transmitter is sending a signal using a
sine wave of frequency f1.
Ideally, we would like there to be only one
transmitter sending a signal at this frequency.
Problem with this: since there is only limited
frequency (see radio spectrum), only a limited
number of transmitters can send radio waves at a
given time.
Worse yet, the two sets of radio waves from the two
transmitters may combine together at receiver to
produce
, an undecipherable received
signal, e.g., loud static on a car radio.
-
This multiple access interference is typically avoided
by making sure that transmitters that use the same
frequency are separated by large distances.
Large distance ensures that interference power is
small (recall: amplitude of radiated sine wave
shrinks with distance).
Interference
Desired
Desired Transmitter Signal
Signal Aeceiver
Interference
Transmitter Aeceiver
Both transmitters use same frequency
If the frequency reuse distance is large, then
interference power is low compared to desired
signal power.
Antenna methods
Etc.
In these slides, we have learned the basics of
wireless communication systems.