Seismic Interpretation and

Subsurface Mapping

1
1. Introduction

• Seismic interpretation and subsurface mapping

are key skills that are used commonly in the oil
industry

• This teaching resource introduces the basic

principles of seismic interpretation and then, if
time permits, they can be applied in a practical
exercise

• The resource dovetails with the A level Geology

specifications 2
2. Basic principles

• Seismic acquisition
• Seismic processing
• Understanding the data
• Seismic interpretation

3
Seismic Exploration
Figure
13.1
 Reflection Seismic Method
• Waves reflected back directly from subsurface
rock interfaces
• Shorter distance from explosion to the
detectors
• Basic Principles
– Seismic waves travel at known velocities through rock
materials
– Vary with type of rock, shale = 3.6 km/s; sandstone =
4.2 km/s; limestone = 5.0 km/s
– Shotpoint – origin of waves (explosives, vibrations,
sound)
– Geophones - detectors
Variable-Density Mode, waves of certain
amplitude shaded black, other light colored Figure 13.2
Seismic acquisition offshore

• An air gun towed behind the

survey ship transmits sound
waves through the water
column and into the subsurface
• Changes in rock type or fluid
content reflect the sound
waves towards the surface
• Receivers towed behind the
vessel record how long it takes
for the sound waves to return
to the surface
• Sound waves reflected by
different boundaries arrive at
different times.
• The same principles apply to
onshore acquisition
7
Seismic acquisition onshore (1)
• Onshore seismic acquisition requires an energy input from a
“thumper” truck. Geophones arrayed in a line behind the truck
record the returning seismic signal.

Vibrator
Geophones (source)
(receivers)
Sub-horizontal
beds
Unconformity
Dipping beds

8
Seismic acquisition onshore (2)
• Seismic horizons represent changes in density and allow the
subsurface geology to be interpreted.

Lithology change
Angular
unconformity
Lithology change

9
Seismic processing

• Wiggle trace to CDP gather

• Normal move out correction
• Stacking
• What is a reflector?

10
Wiggle trace to CDP gather

Wiggle CDP
traces gather

Graphs of intensity of sound as Graphs of intensity for one

received by the recorders location collected into groups
and shown in a sequence. 11
Normal move out correction
CMP
Sound sources Sound receivers
S1 S2 S3 R3 R2 R1

st
st
1 2

e
te

ow
Fas
So

Sl
u
nd

ed
re ave
wa

ct
ve

W
fle
in

Change in lithology from mud to sand so

sound is reflected back to surface
CDP

Data for one point from different

signals to different receivers
Original corrected
1. More time needed to reach distant CDP for normal
receivers so the data look like a curve. gather … move out
2. Correcting for normal move out
restores the curve to a near horizontal 12
display.
Stacking

First, gather sound data for Next, take all the sound Finally, place stacks for
one location and correct for traces for that one place adjacent locations side
delayed arrival (normal move and stack them on top of by side to produce a
out) each other seismic line 13
What is a reflector?
A seismic reflector is a boundary There are many
between beds with different reflectors on a seismic
properties. There may be a section. Major changes in
change of lithology or fluid fill properties usually produce
from Bed 1 to Bed 2. These strong, continuous
property changes cause some reflectors as shown by
sound waves to be reflected the arrow.
towards the surface.

energy signal
source receiver

In y
co ra
Bed 1 m d
in c te
g
ra ef le
lower velocity y R
higher velocity Re
frac
te d ra
y
Bed 2

14
Understanding the data

• Common Depth Points (CDPs)

• Floating datum
• Two way time (TWT)
• Time versus depth

15
Common Depth Points

Common midpoint
above CDP

Sound sources Sound receivers

CDPs are defined as S1 S2 S 3 R3 R2 R1
‘the common reflecting
point at depth on a

e
So

ed v
ct wa
un
reflector or the

fle d
wa

re un
halfway point when a

So
ve
wave travels from a

in
source to a reflector Change in lithology =
reflecting horizon
to a receiver’.
Common reflecting point or
common depth point (CDP)

16
Floating datum

The floating datum line represents travel time between the recording
surface and the zero line (generally sea level). This travel time depends
on rock type, how weathered the rock is, and other factors.

The topographic elevation is the height above sea level of the surface
along which the seismic data were acquired.
17
Two way time (TWT)

Two way time (TWT) TWT

indicates the time surface
required for the seismic 0
wave to travel from a
source to some point 0.25 seconds
0.25 seconds
below the surface and
back up to a receiver.
0.5

In this example the

TWT is 0.5 seconds.
seconds

18
Time versus depth
• Two way time (TWT) does not equate directly to depth
• Depth of a specific reflector can be determined using boreholes
• For example, 926 m depth = 0.58 sec. TWT

288

0.58 sec 926 926 m

1865
19
m
Seismic interpretation

• Check line scale and orientation.

• Work from the top of the section, where

clarity is usually best, towards the bottom.

• Distinguish the major reflectors and

geometries of seismic sequences.

20
Scale and orientation

• Use the scale bar to

estimate the length of
the line
• Use CDPs to check the
orientation of the line on
the accompanying map
21
Top down approach
• Start at the top of the section, where definition is usually best
• Work down the section toward the zone where the signal to
noise ratio is reduced and the reflector definition is less clear

first

second

third

22
Reflector character and geometry

Continuous
reflector
truncating
short ones
Next
continuous
reflector

Reflectors
onlapping
continuous
one

23
Seismic reflection configuration
and reflection continuity
Figure 13.4

Primary depositional conditions –

Parallel, divergent, prograding
Undaform, Clinoform, Fondoform

Figure 13.5

Depositional Environments in relationship to wave base.

 Seismic
Seismic stratigraphic interpretation
used to:
 Define geometries of genetic reflection
packages that envelope seismic
sequences and systems tracts
 Identify bounding discontinuities on
basis of reflection termination patterns
and continuity

GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface

Analysis
 Seismic Boundaries
Termination below discontinuity, or
upper sequence boundary :
 Toplap termination
 Truncation of sediment surface
 Often channel bottom
Above a discontinuity defining lower
sequence boundary:
 Onlap over surface
 Downlap surface
GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface
Analysis
Relationships to strata

Non-depositional Figure 13.7

 Seismic reflection patterns
Nondepositional
Erosional truncation Toplap hiatus

Downlap

onlap

Figure 13.8
 Relationships that define
Unconformable boundaries

Figure 13.9
Mapping unconformities key to seismic
sequence analysis
 Sequence Boundaries, Downlap,
Reflection terminations

Above discontinuities –
onlap, downlap

Below discontinuities – truncation,

Figure 13.10
toplap, apparent truncation
 Seismic Boundaries
Below Boundary - Toplap termination

GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface

Analysis
 Seismic Boundaries

Below Boundary - Truncation of surface

GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface

Analysis
 Seismic Boundaries

Channeled
Surface
– Below
Boundary

GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface

Analysis
 Seismic Boundaries

Over Boundary - Onlap onto surface

GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface

Analysis
 Seismic Boundaries

Over Boundary- Downlap onto surface

GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface

Analysis
GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface
Analysis
GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface
Analysis
GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface
Analysis
GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface
Analysis
41
 Sequence Stratigraphy
Subdivision & interpretation of sedimentary
record using a framework surfaces seen in
outcrops, well logs, & 2-D and 3-D seismic.
Include:
• Surfaces of erosion & non-deposition (sequence
boundaries)
• Flooding (trangressive surfaces [TS] &/or maximum
flooding surfaces [mfs]) & high stand condensed
surfaces
This framework used to predict the extent of
sedimentary facies geometry, lithologic character,
grain size, sorting & reservoir quality
GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface
Analysis
 Tools Define Bounding
Surfaces
These surfaces subdivide sedimentary rock &
provide:-
• Relative time framework for sedimentary
succession
• Better understanding of inter-relationship of
depositional settings & their lateral correlation

Conceptual models follow that link the

processes that formed the sediments and
enable the prediction of their gross geometries
GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface
Analysis
 Hierarchy of Geometries
• Sequence geometries are subdivided and defined by
– Maximum Flooding Surfaces (mfs)
– Transgressive Surfaces (TS)
– Sequence Boundaries (SB)
• Define how vertical succession or stacking patterns of
unconfined sheets are arranged
– Prograde (step seaward)
– Retrograde (step landward)
– Aggrade (build vertically)
• Sheets and unconfined lobes may contain
– Non-amalgamated bodies
• Amalgamated, multi-storied bodies
– Incised topographic fill of valleys
– Unconfined but localized lobes from point & multiple up dip
sources
– Unconfined but localized build ups (carbonates)
GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface
Analysis
GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface
Analysis
GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface
Analysis
GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface
Analysis
GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface
Analysis
 Hierarchy of Geometries
• Sequence geometries are subdivided and defined by
– Maximum Flooding Surfaces (mfs)
– Transgressive Surfaces (TS)
– Sequence Boundaries (SB)
• Define how vertical succession or stacking patterns
of unconfined sheets are arranged
– Prograde (step seaward)
– Retrograde (step landward)
– Aggrade (build vertically)
• Sheets and unconfined lobes may contain
– Non-amalgamated bodies
• Amalgamated, multi-storied bodies
– Incised topographic fill of valleys
– Unconfined but localized lobes from point & multiple up
dip sources
– Unconfined but localized build
GEOL 553 Lecture ups (carbonates)
3; Subsurface
Analysis
Ebb Ooid Delta - UAE

GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface

Analysis
Delta Mouth Bar - Kentucky

Note Incised Surface

GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface

Analysis
Channel – Gulf Coast

Note Incised Surface

GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface

Analysis
Flood Deltas & Channels -
Kty

GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface

Analysis
 Tidal
Channels
Khor
al
Bazam
-
UAE
GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface
Analysis
Tidal, Storm or Tsunami
Channel

Note Incised Surface

GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface
Analysis
Tsunami Load & Drape - Kty

Note Uniform Thickness of Layer

GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface

Analysis
Clastic Sequence Stratigraphic
Hierarchies

GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface

Analysis
 Channels & Shelves

e l
n n Sh
h a elf
C
Both have unique processes &
structures that can be used to
identify their setting
GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface
Analysis
 Tools Enable Sequence
Stratigraphic Analysis
This analysis involves
• Subdivision of section into sequences, parasequences and
beds.
• Link conceptual models with mix of components of the
individual sequence, parasequence or beds
• Use these to explain the depositional setting in terms of
their lithology, grain size, sedimentary structures,
contacts character (gradational, abrupt) etc

GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface

Analysis
 Sequence
Stratigraphi
c
Analysis

GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface

Analysis
End of the Lecture

Can it be supper
time?
GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface
Analysis
GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface
Analysis
 Unconfined Flow - Not in a
Channel
• Unique Processes
– Flow is in all directions
– No lateral boundaries, only upper and lower
boundaries
– Velocity changes: high to low
• Sediment responses
– Decrease in grain size: Fining outward (coarse to
fine)
– Erosional/sharp/gradational contacts
– Accretion: Downstream, upstream and vertical
– Decrease in sedimentary structures away from
source
• Geometries
– Sheets
– Thin in direction of553
GEOL flow
Lecture 3; Subsurface
Analysis