History of Complex Numbers

• A fact that is surprising to many is that complex

numbers arose from the need to solve cubic
equations, and not (as it is commonly believed)
quadratic equations.
• These notes track the development of complex
numbers in history, and give evidence that
supports the above statement.
• Al-Khwarizmi (780-850) in his Algebra has
solution to quadratic equations of various types.

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• In early ages the problem arise for the solution
of problems in which negative numbers comes in
under root.
• To solve this problem, Rafael Bombelli authored
l’Algebra (1572, and 1579), a set of three books.
Bombelli introduces a notation for
1 , and
calls it “pi´u di meno”.

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 The term Conjugate
• Inversely or oppositely related with respect to
one of a group of otherwise identical
properties, especially designating either or
both of a pair of complex numbers differing
only in the sign of the imaginary term.

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 In Mathematics
• In mathematics, the complex conjugate of a
complex number is given by changing the sign of
the imaginary part. Thus, the conjugate of the
complex number
•
i
z=a+ b
• (where a and b are `numbers) is
•
i
z*=a- b
• The complex conjugate is also very commonly
denoted by z * .
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• For example,

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• Complex numbers are often depicted
as points in a plane with a Cartesian
coordinate . The x-axis contains the
real numbers and the y-axis contains
the multiples of i. In this view, complex
conjugation corresponds to reflection
at the x-axis.
• In polar form, however, the conjugate
of reiφ is given by re − iφ. This can easily
be verified by using Euler's formula.

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 Properties
• These properties apply for all complex
numbers z and w, unless stated otherwise.

if w is non-zero

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if and only if z is real
for any integer n

involution (i.e. the conjugate of the conjugate of a

complex number z is again that number)
if z is non-zero
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 Use as a variable
• Once a complex number or
is given, its conjugate is sufficient to reproduce
the parts of the z-variable:

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 Graphical Explanation
• The complex number ‘z*’ is just
like a mirrored image of ‘z’.
• The graph shows us that the
function containing a complex
number and its complex conjugate
will be a discontinuous function so
creating a non analyticity property in
the function.

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 δf/δz* =0
If f is an continuous function in Domain D
then f will be analytic if δf/δz* =0
Proof:
Since, f = u + iv
f f x f y
   
z x z y z
1 f 1 f
   
2 x 2i y

1
2
  1

U x  iV y  V y  iU y
2i

1 1
 U x  iVx     Vx  iU x 
2 2i
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 f
0
z

This shows that the complex function when

differentiated with its conjugate reruns zero in
result.

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 Triangular Inequality
2
z1  z 2  z1  z 2  z1  z 2 img

Z1 + Z2
2
z1  z 2  z1 z1  z1 z 2  z 2 z1  z 2 z 2 Z2

2 2 2
z1  z 2  z1  z1 z 2  z 2 z1  z 2 Z1

 z1 z 2  z 2 z1
real
2 2 2
z1  z 2  z1  z1 z 2  z1 z 2  z 2
2 2 2
z1  z 2  z1  2 z1 z 2  z 2
2 2
z1  z 2  z1  z 2
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 Applications of Complex
Conjugates
• When a real positive definite quantity is needed from a
real function, the square of the function can be used.
• In the case of a complex function, the complex conjugate
is used to accomplish that purpose.
• The product of a complex number and its complex
conjugate is the complex number analog to squaring a
real function.
• The complex conjugate is used in the rationalization of
complex numbers and for finding the amplitude of the
polar form of a complex number.

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• One application of the complex conjugate in
physics is in finding the probability in quantum
mechanics.
• Since the wave function which defines the
probability amplitude may be a complex function,
the probability is defined in terms of the complex
conjugate to obtain a real value.

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 Complex Numbers in Real Life

• In electronics, the state of a circuit element is described by

two real numbers (the voltage V across it and the current I
flowing through it). A circuit element also may possess a
capacitance C and an inductance L that (in simplistic terms)
describe its tendency to resist changes in voltage and current
respectively.
• These are much better described by complex numbers.
Rather than the circuit element's state having to be described
by two different real numbers V and I, it can be described by a
single complex number z = V + i I. Similarly, inductance and
capacitance can be thought of as the real and imaginary parts
of another single complex number w = C + i L. The laws of
electricity can be expressed using complex addition and
multiplication.

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• Another example is electromagnetism. Rather than trying
to describe an electromagnetic field by two real
quantities (electric field strength and magnetic field
strength), it is best described as a single complex
number, of which the electric and magnetic components
are simply the real and imaginary parts.
• A sinusoidal voltage of frequency can be thought of as
the real-valued part of a complex-valued exponential
function

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• When such a voltage is passed through a circuit
of resistance R, capacitance C, and inductance
L, the circuit impedes the signal. The amount by
which it impedes the signal is called the
impedance and this is an example of the first
kind of application of complex numbers I
described above: a quantity with direct physical
relevance that is described by a complex
number. It is given by

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