m Non-protein substances essential for enzymes to

function effectively.
m When an enzyme is linked to a cofactor, the
complex is called a holoenzyme.
m When an enzyme is not linked to a cofactor, the
complex is called an apoenzyme.
here are three types:
1. Activators ± these are believed to help mould
either the enzyme or the substrate so that the
enzyme/substrate complex can be formed. Eg.
Ca 2+ ions are needed so that thrombokinase can
convert prothrombin to thrombin. Cl - ions are
needed for salivary amylase to convert starch to
maltose.
2. Coenzymes ± these are non protein organic
molecules not bound to the enzyme. hey
transfer chemical groups, atoms or electrons
from one enzyme to another. Many are vitamins
or their derivatives. Eg. NAD (Nicotamide
Adenine Dinucleotide ± a derivative of nicotinic
acid ± B vitamin) is a hydrogen acceptor and a
coenzyme to dehydrogenases.
°. Prosthetic groups ± these are organic molecules
bound to the enzyme. Eg. Haem (a flat ring
molecule containing iron). It is a prosthetic group
of the electron carrier cytochrome oxidase and
catalase.
m hese prevent the action of enzymes or reduce
their catalytic power.
m here are two main types:
- Reversible inhibitors
- Irreversible inhibitors.
V hese do not cause any permament damage to
the enzymes. herefore, after the inhibitor is
removed, the enzyme can function normally
again. here are two types;

a. Competitive
b. Non-competitive
m hese have similar shape to the substrate and
compete with it to occupy the active site. If more
substrate is added, the effect of the inhibitors is
reduced.
1. - he antifreeze ethylene glycol is rapidly
converted to oxalic acid if ingested.
- Oxalic acid causes irreversible damage to
kidneys.
- he active site of the enzyme (alcohol
dehydrogenase) which converts ethylene glycol
to oxalic acid will accept ethanol.
- If the person who ingested ethylene glycol is
given large doses of ethanol, the ethanol acts as
a competitive inhibitor allowing the ethylene
glycol to be excreted or removed.
2. Penicillin occupies the active site of the
enzymes that are essential for the synthesis of
bacterial cell walls.
°. Succinic dehydrogenase takes part in the Kreb¶s
cycle converting succinic acid to fumaric acid.
Malonate is similar in structure to succinic acid.
Malonate ions occupy the active site of the
enzyme preventing further reaction.
m hese do not compete for the active site of the
enzyme. Rather, they bind elsewhere on the
enzyme or the cofactor, thus disrupting the shape
of the enzyme and hence the active site.
m hey change the shape and structure of the
enzyme so that it is permanently damaged. i.e. is
inactivated permanently.
m his type of inhibition occurs slowly but the effects
are devastating. It is never used in cells to control
metabolism.
1. Arsenic, cyanide and mercury. Nerve gases are
dangerous because they inactivate the enzyme
acetylcholinesterase. his enzyme destroys the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine after it carries
impulses across a synapse. When it is not
broken down, the muscle goes into prolonged
spasms and breathing and swallowing becomes
impossible.
m 2. Pyrethroids and nicotine (insecticides) ± directly
affects the synapses of the CNS in insects. he
neurotransmitters are not broken down, there is
constant stimulation resulting in twitching,
convulsions and death.
m Regulatory enzymes are used in the control of the
many metabolic reactions within a cell.
m hey are also called allosteric enzymes.
(Allosteric ± another place)
m Regulatory enzymes have another site to which
another molecule can bind and act as an inhibitor
or activator.
m Allosteric control is different from non-competitive
inhibition because the molecule can inhibit or
activate the enzyme.
m Regulatory enzymes are found in metabolic
pathways.
m he enzymes are found near to or at the
beginning of the pathway and is inhibited or
activated by an end product of the chain.
V heir use in technology is very promising
because:
1. hey can work at low temperature.
2. hey can work at normal pressures.
°. heir pH ranges can be very easily maintained.
4. hey can be produced using genetic
engineering.
V Rennin is used to clot milk when making cheese.
V Enzymes from yeast used in brewing and baking.
V Cellulases and pectinases used to clarify fruit
juices.
V rypsin used to predigest baby foods.
V Proteases used to lower protein content of flour
when making biscuits.
V A variety of enzymes used to make syrups from
starches.
m sed in detergents to digest µdirt¶ especially
proteins, sweat etc.
m Enzymes are presently being developed that nip
off bobbles formed on cotton when washed.
m sed in rubber industry to produce oxygen and
convert latex to foam rubber.