Department of Civil Engineering

School of Engineering, University of Nairobi

Lecture Notes Hydrology

Dulo S.O
E-mail: sodulo@uonbi.ac.ke
Department of Civil Engineering
School of Engineering, University of Nairobi

Precipitation
Rainfall
 Precipitation

The common forms of precipitations:

Drizzle/Mist: water droplets of diameters less

than 0.5 mm.
Snow: ice crystals combining to form flakes with
average specific gravity of about 0.1.
Sleet: rain water drops falling through air at or
below freezing temperatures, turned to frozen
rain drops.
Hail: precipitation in the form of ice balls of
diameter more than about 8 mm.
 Precipitation cont….
Rain:
◦ Is precipitation in the form of
water drops of size larger than
0.5 mm to 6mm


◦ The rainfall is classified in to

 Light rain – if intensity is trace to
2.5 mm/h
Moderate – if intensity is 2.5
mm/hr to 7.5 mm/hr
Heavy rain – above 7.5 mm/hr
 Precipitation

The formation of precipitation requires the lifting of

an air mass in the atmosphere so that it cools and
some of its moisture condenses.

The 3 main mechanisms of air mass lifting are

Frontal Lifting: warm air mass rises to pass
over cooler air by frontal passage.
Orographic Lifting: an air mass rises to pass
over a mountain range.
Convective Lifting: air is drawn upwards by
convective action.
The Formation of Precipitation

Water droplets in clouds

are formed by
nucleation of vapor on
aerosols, then go
through many
condensation-
evaporation cycles as
they circulate in the
cloud, until they
aggregate into large
enough drops to fall
through the cloud base.
 Introduction….
Snow:
◦ Snow is formed from ice crystal masses,
which usually combine to form flakes
Hail (violent thunderstorm)
◦ precipitation in the form of small balls or
lumps usually consisting of concentric
layers of clear ice and compact snow.
◦ Hail varies from 0.5 to 5 cm in diameter
and can be damaging crops and small
buildings.
 Rainfall Measurement

Rainfall gauges (WMO – standard

types
Rainfall recorders
◦ Dines Tilting Syphon
◦ Tipping bucket gauge

 Rainfall Measurement

Tipping bucket rain gauge

How it rains

 The surface is
heated by the sun
 Air rises
 Air expands and
cools
 Air condenses
 Water droplets grow
to form raindrops
 Air can rise in
different ways
Relief rainfall
Cyclonic Rainfall

 Depressions are
areas of low
pressure formed
when cold and
warm air meet
 The warm air rises
above the cold air
to form a front
 There are two types
of fronts
depending on the
way in which the
air masses are
Cyclonic Rainfall: Fronts

 Warm fronts form

where warm air
moves towards
cold air
 Cold fronts form
where cold air
moves towards
warm air
 As air rises at fronts
both are
responsible for
rain
Convectional rainfall

 Common on hot
summer days
inland
 Hot air rises quickly
and condenses to
form
cumulonimbus
 Water freezes at the
top of the cloud
forming hail
 Associated with
lightning
Fair Weather

 Fair weather is
produced by high
pressure
 High pressure forms
anticyclones
 Air sinks and prevents
the formation of rain
clouds
 Anticyclones cause
heat waves in
summer and
frosty/foggy
Forecasting the Weather

 Modern forecasts
use computers to
simulate the likely
weather based on
careful
observations from
100s of weather
stations round the
world
 Satellite images and
radar give a
better picture of
the weather over
A Satellite Image
A Radar Image

 Cyclonic rainfall
moving in from
the west
 The brighter the
colour, the
heavier the
rainfall
 Mountains
intensify the
rain such as
over the
Scottish
Highlands
 Rainfall Measurement

Rain gauge

A rain gauge collects rain and measures it.

 Precipitation
Variation of Precipitation
Precipitation varies in Space
Time

According to The general pattern

of atmospheric
circulation
Local factors

The average over a number of years of

observations of a weather variable is called its
normal value.
 Temporal Variation of rainfall at a particular site

Total Rainfall amount = 6.17 cm

14
Rainfall Intensity, cm/hr

12
10

8
6
4

2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time, min
 L o n g te r m P r e c ip ita tio n v a r ia tio n a t A r b a M in c h

45
40
35
30
Annual rainfall, mm

25
20
15
10
5
0
1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
Ye a rs
A n n u a l P r e c ip it a t io n
a v e r a g e p r e c ip it a t io n
Precipitation variation

Mean annual precipitation

Seasonal Precipitation variation

Normal monthly distribution of precipitation

 Precipitation
Variety of Precipitation

Mean annual precipitation of the world in mm. (1977)

 Rainfall Isohyetal Maps
Rainstorms vary greatly in space and time.
Rainfall can be represented by “Isohyetal Map”.
Isohyet is a contour of constant rainfall.

Isohyetal maps are prepared by interpolating rainfall data

recorded at gauged point.
 Rainfall Hyetograph ; cumulative
Hyetograph

Computation of rainfall depth and

intensity at a point
=1.17-0.00
=1.67-0.02
The rainfall data in 5-minute
increments from gage 1-Bee in the
=3.81-0.00 Austin storm.
=4.17-0.02

Computations of max rainfall depth

and intensity give index of how
=3.81-0.00 severe a particular storm is,
=8.22-0.02 compared to other storms recorded at
the same location, and they provide
useful data for design of control
structures.

=0.76/(5/60) =8.20/2
 Rainfall
Rainfall Hyetograph
Rainfall Depth (mm)
Cumulative Rainfall Hyetograph
0.76 inch
Incremental Rainfall in mm per 5 minutes

Rainfall Hyetograph:
Is a plot of rainfall depth or intensity
as a function of time.

Time in minutes
 Rainfall
Rainfall Hyetograph
Cumulative Rainfall Hyetograph

Cumulative Rainfall
Cumulative Rainfall in inches

Hyetograph /Rainfall Mass Curve:

Is a plot of cumulative rainfall as a
function of time.
=6.22-3.15 =8.22-0.02

=6.73-1.17

Time in minutes
2.3. Measurement of Rainfall

Rainfall and other forms of precipitation

are measured in terms of depth, the
values being expressed in millimeters.
One millimeter of precipitation represents
the quantity of water needed to cover
the land with a 1mm layer of water,
taking into account that nothing is lost
through drainage, evaporation or
absorption.
Instrument used to collect and measure
the precipitation is called raingauge.

 Rainfall measurement…

Precipitation gauge
1 - pole
2 - collector
3 - support- galvanized
metal sheet
4 – funnel
5 - steel ring

1. Non recording gauge

2. Recording gauge / graphic raingauge
The instrument records the graphical
variation of the fallen precipitation,
the total fallen quantity in a certain
time interval and the intensity of the
rainfall (mm/hour).
It allows continuous measurement of
the rainfall. The graphic rain gauge
1-receiver
2-floater
3-siphon
4-recording needle
5-drum with diagram
6-clock mechanism
3. Tele-rain gauge with tilting baskets
The tele-rain gauge is used to transmit
measurements of precipitation
through electric or radio signals.
The sensor device consists of a system
with two tilting baskets, which fill
alternatively with water from the
collecting funnel, establishing the
electric contact.
The number of tilting is proportional to
the quantity of precipitation hp
Tipping bucket rain gauge
……

1 - collecting funnel
2 - tilting baskets
3 - electric signal
4 - evacuation
4. Radar measurement of rainfall

The meteorological radar is the powerful

instrument for measuring the area extent,
location and movement of rainstorm.
The amount of rainfall overlarge area can be
determined through the radar with a good
degree of accuracy
The radar emits a regular succession of
pulse of electromagnetic radiation in a
narrow beam so that when the raindrops
intercept a radar beam, its intensity can
easily be known.
Raingauge Network

Since the catching area of the

raingauge is very small as
compared to the areal extent of the
storm, to get representative picture
of a storm over a catchment the
number of raingauges should be as
large as possible, i.e. the catchment
area per gauge should be small.
There are several factors to be
considered to restrict the number of
gauge:
◦ Like economic considerations to a large
extent
 Raingauge Network…..
World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
recommendation:
◦ In flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean and
tropical zones
 Ideal  1 station for 600 – 900 km2
Acceptable 1 station for 900 – 3000 km2
◦ In mountainous regions of temperate ,
Mediterranean and tropical zones
Ideal  1 station for 100 – 250 km2
Acceptable  1 station for 250 – 1000 km2
◦ In arid and polar zone
1 station for 1500 – 10,000 km2
10 % of the raingauges should be self
recording to know the intensity of the
rainfall
ARIAL RAINFALL
DETERMINATION
Mean Precipitation over an area

Raingauges rainfall represent only point

sampling of the areal distribution of a
storm
The important rainfall for hydrological
analysis is a rainfall over an area, such as
over the catchment
To convert the point rainfall values at various
stations to in to average value over a
catchment, the following methods are
used:
◦ arithmetic mean
◦ the method of the Thiessen polygons
Arithmetic Mean Method

•When the area is physically and climatically

homogenous and the required accuracy is small,
the average rainfall ( P ) for a basin can be
obtained as the arithmetic mean of the hi values
recorded at various stations.
•Applicable rarely for practical purpose
•
•
P1 + P2 + ..... + Pi + .....Pn 1 N
• P =
• N
= ∑
N i =1
Pi
•This method is suitable if the rain gauge stations are
uniformly distributed over the entire area and the
rainfall variation in the area is not large.
•
Method of Thiessen polygons

•The method of Thiessen polygons consists of

attributing to each station an influence zone in
which it is considered that the rainfall is
equivalent to that of the station.
•The influence zones are represented by convex
polygons.
•These polygons are obtained using the
mediators of the segments which link each
station to the closest neighbouring stations
 Arial Rainfall

Thiessen Polygon Method

The catchment is plotted to scale
The gauging stations are then inserted on the plot
The lines joining adjacent stations are then
bisected by perpendiculars
Each stations is then surrounded by a polygon
Thiessen polygons ……….
 Thiessen polygons ……….

P P
7
A 6
A
7 P
6
2 A A
A 2 P A
1
P 8
1
5 P
A A
8 5
P 4
3
3 P
4
 Thiessen polygons ……….

P1 A1 + P2 A2 + ..... + Pm Am
P =
( A1 + A2 + ..... + Am )
Generally for M station
M

∑P A i i M
Ai
P = i =1
Atotal
= ∑
i =1
Pi
A
Ai
The ratio A is called the Thiessen coefficient
(weightage factor) of station i
 Arial Rainfall

Thiessen Polygon
Method
The method is better than the arithmetic mean method
since it assigns some weightage to all rain gauge on area
basis.

The rain gauge stations outside the catchment can also

be used effectively.

Once the weightage factors (thiessen coefficient)for all

the rain gauge stations are computed, the calculation of
the average rainfall depth P is relatively easy for given
network of stations.
 Arial Rainfall - Isohyetal Method

 The catchment is plotted to scale

 The gauging stations are then inserted on
the plot
 Points of equal rainfall are joined to form
the isohyets
 Since this method considers actual
spatial variation of rainfall, it is
considered as the best method for
computing average depth of rainfall.

 Arial Rainfall - Isohyetal Method
An isohyet is a contour of equal rainfall.

Knowing the depths of rainfall at each rain gage station

of an area, assuming linear variation of rainfall
between any two adjacent stations, one can draw a
smooth curve passing through all points indicating the
same value of rainfall.

The area between two adjacent isohyets is measured

with the help of a planimeter.

Average depth of rainfall, P

1 [ Area between two adjacent isohyets ] X

P= ∑
A [mean pptof two adjacent isohyte values ]
Isohyetal Method
•An isohyet is a line joining points of equal rainfall
magnitude. 10.
8 0
a D
6 C 12
5
9.2 12
a4
7.0 a3
4 B
7.2
A
a2 E 10.
9.1
4.0 a1 0
F
8
4 6
2.6 Intensity – Duration – Frequency (IDF)
Relationship
Mass Curve of Rainfall

Mass curve of rainfall

60
accumulated precipitation, mm

50

40

30

20 1st storm,
10
16 mm 2nd
0 storm,
0 20 40 6016 mm80 100 120
Time, hour
 Hyetograph IDF ….

-is a plot of the accumulated precipitation against time, plotted

in chronological order
Hyeto g rap h o f a sto rm

0.5 Total depth = 10.6 cm

0.4 Duration = 46 hr
Intensity, cm/hr

0.3
0.2

0.1
0
0 – 8 8 – 16 16 – 24 24 – 32 32 – 40 40 – 48
Time, ho urs
IDF ….
 In many design problems related to watershed
such as runoff disposal, erosion control, highway
construction, culvert design, it is necessary to
know the rainfall intensities of different durations
and different return periods.
 The curve that shows the inter-dependency
between i (cm/hr), D (hour) and T (year) is called
IDF curve.
 The relation can be expressed in general form as:
x
kT i – Intensity (cm/hr)

i = D – Duration (hours)

( D + a) n K, x, a, n – are constant for a given

catchment
 IDF ….Typ ical IDF Curve
14
T = 25 years
12 T = 50 years
Intesity, cm/hr

10 T = 100 years
8
6
4
k = 6.93
2 x = 0.189

0 a = 0.5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 n =

Duration, hr 0.878
 Preparation of Data
Before using rainfall data, it is necessary to
check the data for continuing and
consistency
◦ Missing data
◦ Record errors
Estimation

of Missing Data
•Given annual precipitation values – P1, P2, P3,… Pm at
neighboring M stations of station X 1, 2, 3 & m respectively
•The normal annual precipitation given by N1, N2, N3,…, Nm,
Ni… (including station X)
•To find the missing precipitation, Px , of station X
Nx  P1 P2 Pm 
Px =  + + ... + 
M  N1 N 2 Nm 
 Interpretation of Rainfall Data
Estimating of Missing Data
Rainfall data must be checked for continuity

consistency
before they are analyzed for any purpose.

The missing annual precipitation, Px

1 Nx P1 P2 Pm
P
Px = (P1 + P2 + .... + Pm ) x = [ + + .... + ]
2 3 M M N1 N2 Nm
x Px = a + b1P1 + b 2P2 + .... + b mPm Multiple Linear Regression
1 m
a≈0
1, 2, 3,….,M = neighbouring rainfall stations
Nx P1, P2, P3,….,Pm = annual rainfall values
bi ≈
MNi N1, N2, N3,….,Nm = average rainfall values
 Interpretation of Rainfall Data

Test for Consistency of Precipitation Data

Changes in relevant conditions of a rain gauge
-Gauge location
-Exposure
-Instrumentation
-Observation techniques
-Surroundings
may cause a relative change in the rainfall catchment
of the rain gauge.

The consistency of the rainfall data needs to be

examined.
Test for record consistency
Some of the common causes for
inconsistency of record include:
Shifting of a raingauge station to
a new location,
The neighborhood of the station
undergoing a marked change.
Test for consistency record
(Double mass curve techniques)

•Let a group of 5 to 10 base stations in the

neighbourhood of the problem station X
•Arrange the data of X stn rainfall and the
average of the neighbouring stations in
reverse chronological order (from recent to old
record)
•Accumulate the precipitation of station X ( ∑ P )
x
and the average values of the group base
stations starting from the latest record.
(∑ P )
avg
Test for consistency record
(Double mass curve techniques)

•Plot the ( ∑ Px ) against ( ∑ Pavg ) as shown on

the next figure
•A decided break in the slope of the resulting
plot is observed that indicates a change in
precipitation regime of station X, i.e
inconsistency.
•Therefore, is should be corrected by the factor
shown on the next slide
 Double Mass Curve Analysis
Test for consistency record….
5
accumulated annual rainfall of X stn in 10^3 cm

4.5

3.5

3
Mc c
2.5
a =
2
c Ma a
1.5

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Accumulated annual rainfall of neigbouring stns in 10^3 cm

Pcx – corrected precipitation at any time period t1 at

Mc
Pcx = Px stationX
Ma Px – Original recorded precp. at time period t1 at station X
Mc – corrected slope of the double mass curve
Assumption in the DMC
Itis apparent that the more
homogeneous the base station
records are, the more accurate
will be the corrected values at
station X. A change in slope is
normally taken as significant
only where it persists for more
than five years.
Depth-Area-Duration Curve
The technique of depth-area-
duration analysis (DAD)
determines primarily the
maximum falls for different
durations over a range of areas.
The data required for a DAD
analysis are shown in the
following figure.
To demonstrate the method, a
storm lasting 24h is chosen and
the isohyets of the total storm are
drawn related to the
measurements from 12 recording
rain gauge stations.
The accumulated rainfalls at each
station for four 6-h periods are
given in the table.
To provide area weightings to the
gauge values, Thiessen polygons
Step-by-step procedures for
drawing DAD curves
First,the areal rainfall depths
over the enclosing isohytal
areas are determined for the
total storm.
The duration computations then
proceed as in the following
table, where the area enclosed
(10km2) by the 150mm isohyet
is considered first. The areal
rainfall over the 10km2 for the
whole storm is 155mm.
The computations are continued by
repeating the method for the areas
enclosed by all the isohyets.
 Depth-Area-Duration (DAD)curve

DAD curves are plots of accumulated average precipitation

versus area for different durations of a storm period.
 Example 3

Arial Rainfall

Station Observed rainfall within the

P2 area
20 (mm)
P3 30
P4 40
P5 50
Total 140

Average Rainfall=140/4=35 mm

Arithmetic-Mean Method
 Example 4

Arial Rainfall
Station Observed Area Weighted
rainfall (mm) (km2) rainfall (mm)
A1
P1 10 0.22 2.2
A5
P2 20 4.02 80.4
A2 P3 30 1.35 40.5
P4 40 1.60 64.0
P5 50 1.95 97.5
Total 9.14 284.6
A4

Average Rainfall=284.6/9.14=31.1 mm
A3

Thiessen Method
 Example 5
Arial Rainfall

Isohyets Area Average Rainfall

Enclosed Rainfall Volume
(km2) (mm)
0.88 5* 4.4

10 1.59 15 23.9
2.24 25 56.0
20
3.01 35 105.4
30
1.22 45 54.9
40
0.20 53* 10.6
50
Total 9.14 255.2

Average Rainfall=255.2/9.14=27.9 mm

Isohyetal Method
 Example 6
Arial Rainfall
The average depth of annual rainfall
precipitation as obtained at the rain gage
stations for a specified area are as shown in
figure. The values are in cm. Determine the
average depth of annual precipitation using

(1) The arithmetic mean method

1
P= [20.3 + 88.1+ 60.9 + 54.7 + 48.1+ 45.6 + 60.0 + 84.0 + 93.2 + 140.6 + 154.0]
11
1
= (849.5) = 77.23 cm
11
 Example 7
Arial Rainfall
Rainfall Rainfall, Pi Area of Weightage PiAi/Ai
Guage
1 (cm)
20.3 Polygon,
22 2 Ai Factor
1.13 (%), 0.23
Station (km ) Ai/ Aix100
2 88.1 0 0 0
3 60.9 0 0 0
4 54.7 0 0 0
5 48.1 62 3.19 1.53
6 45.6 373 19.19 8.75
7 60.0 338 17.39 10.43
8 84.0 373 19.19 16.12
9 93.2 286 14.71 13.71
10 140.6 236 12.41 17.07 (2) Thiessen Polygon
11 154.0 254 13.07 20.13 Method
Total 1,944 100.01 87.97

Ai
Average Annual Precipitation = ∑ Pi = 87.97 cm
∑A
i
 Example 8
Arial Rainfall
Isohyets Net Area, Ai Average Precipitation, Pi PiAi
(cm)
<30 (km2
96 ) (cm)
25 2,400
30-60 600 45 27,000
60-90 610 75 45,750
90-120 360 105 37,800
120-150 238 135 32,130
>150 40 160 6,400
Total 1,944 151,480

(3) Isohyetal Method

151,480
Average Annual Pr ecipitation for the ba sin =
1,944
= 77.92 mm
 Example 9
Double Mass Curve

No Annual
Station 1 S
Sta.1
Sta.3

Sta.2

1 1,486.20
Annual Rainfall (mm/yr)

2 1,475.70 Cumulative Annual

Rainfall (mm/yr)

3 1,403.80
 Example 9
40,000
Double Mass Curve
80,000
Accumulative Annual Rainfall of Station1

Accumulative Annual Rainfall of Station1

Station 1 Station 2
35,000 70,000

30,000 60,000

25,000 50,000
(mm)

(mm)
20,000 40,000

15,000 30,000

10,000 20,000

5,000 10,000

0 0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,00
Accumulative Annual Rainfal of 3 station Mean (mm) Accumulative Annual Rainfal of 3 station Mean (mm)

Station
30,000

Accumulative Annual Rainfall of 1

Station 3

25,000
The past response is to be related to
the present conditions. 20,000
(mm)

15,000

10,000

5,000

0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000