Evolution of Language

Introduction

Language and Speech

Are an important part of what makes humans human

Religion
Many cultures have language origin myths
Either to explain why we have language Or to explain why we have many languages

Early speculation
Jespersens (1922) summarized:
Bow-wow theory Pooh-pooh theory Ding-dong theory Yo-he-ho theory

But his own alternative:

La-la theory

In addition:

The state-of-the-art in 1866

Evolution: Darwin 1858/1859 Neanderthal-skull: Schaaffhausen 1858 Linguistics: Stammbaum-theory, Schleicher ca. 1853 Freud was 10 years old Broca had discovered Brocas area in 1861

Can we do better today?

Topics
Evolution Anatomy and Fossils Genetics of Language Computer Models Laboratory Experiments

Evolution of Language and of Languages Carroll 2003

Gray & Atkinson 2003

Darwin 1837

Evolution
Both emergence of our capacity for language and diversity of languages can be seen as the outcome of evolution

Co-evolution
Co-evolution occurs when two systems evolve and interact with each other
The systems influence each others fitness Language and the capacity for language have coevolved

What exactly is evolution?

Three factors
Replication of information Variation on this information Selection on this variation

In the short term, these effects increase fitness

Traits that increase replication are selected for

An example
In the given ecological context, animals that can eat higher food have the advantage

selection

transfer of information, variation

Replication of Information (1)

Children must resemble their parents
Otherwise no direction to search In language: need to be able to communicate with parents

In biology: genes (DNA)

And perhaps to some extent: proteins and RNA Difference between genotype (genes) and phenotype (organism)

Replication of information (2)

In biology genetic information is independent of life experience
Transfer from genotype to genotype Phenotypic experience is not transferred

In language, only utterances are transferred, not linguistic representations in the brain
This allows collective learning from experience Typical for cultural evolution

Lamarck (1809)

Variation (1)
Variation is essential, otherwise one would not explore the space of possibilities In biology:
Recombination of genes (diploid genes) Crossover Mutation Essentially random

Variation (2)
However, in language (and culture) variations can be introduced consciously, based on experience
Making possible the very rapid spread of cultural innovations

Selection (1)
Individuals that are in some respect better are selected to create the next generation
But who determines what is better?

In biology fitness is by definition equal to number of offspring

But this is a post hoc measure, not an a priori measure

In biology, fitness depends on ecology

Selection (2)
Selection is based on ability to create offspring
Survival is a precondition for procreation

But other factors play a role

Sexual selection, among others

What does selection consist of in language?

Acceptability to other language users?

Variation/Selection
Functional changes
Things that are easier to say are preferred by speakers Things that are easier to understand are preferred by listeners Contradictory forces

Ethnic identity
Language is a very powerful factor in defining identity and solidarity Slang and jargon serve to distinguish oneself

Taboo
Vocabularies can change rapidly when words can become taboo

Innovation
Introduction of new words for new items Or poetic innovation

Complications
Multilingualism
Because a speaker uses multiple languages, these languages start to interfere Famous example: Kupwar (India) Influences grammar and morphology

Loan words
Words for new objects, or words that have higher prestige enter the language Influences lexicon

More complications
Standards
Speakers adapt their speech to conform to a certain standard Usually the standard has a certain prestige

Modern complications
Standardized education Mass media

Evolution and tinkering

(Francois Jacob, Science 1977) Evolution works with what is already there
This sometimes results in solutions that are less than optimal

Other terms are:

Exaptation (cf. adaptation, the use of existing structures for new purposes) Spandrels (Gould): Structures that have developed as a side-effect of other adaptive functions, but that are not necessarily adaptive themselves.

Misconceptions about Evolution

Evolution always results in optimal solutions Evolution is goal-oriented Evolution is an extremely slow process

Evolution and teleology

Ediacaran fauna

Evolution is not teleological (goal directed)

This is sometimes thought (e.g. humans are the crown on evolution)

However there is something called the ratchet effect

When a certain level of complexity is reached, there is no turning back. Example: once hard bodied animals evolve, soft bodied ones are at a strong disadvantage (Ediacaran to late pre-Cambrian transition)
Burgess shale fauna

Evolution is slow?
Biological evolution tends to be slow
Because mutations are random and most are bad 1977

But in large populations, adaptation can be quick

Think antibiotic resistant bacteria

Some researchers claim evolution goes in fits and bursts

Punctuated equilibrium (Eldredge and Gould 1972) 2011

Cultural evolution can be extremely rapid

Evolution Summary
Evolution is:
Transfer of information Variation Selection

Can be biological, cultural

There are important differences

Co-evolution also occurs The idea is simple, but the effects can be very subtle.

The evolutionary perspective (1)

Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution
Theodosius Dobzhansky (1973)

That does not mean that only an evolutionary perspective is interesting

Just that you need an evolutionary perspective to understand ultimate causes

The evolutionary perspective (2)

An evolutionary perspective is implicit in most thinking about linguistic cognition
Dugesia sp. Photo: Roberto Petracini

Consider:
A brain is necessary to use language But even flatworms have brains So what makes our brains special, compared to other brains?

Particulars of language evolution

Language needs strong cooperation
An interesting problem how this evolved

Co-evolution of culturally transmitted language and biological adaptations crucial

A mutation for language is useless if no others have it Cultural system must already be present for biological adaptation to work

Evolution of language (2)

How can we study evolution of language? No fossilized speech and older than historical sources But data on:
Modern human behavior Fossils (Tuesdays class topic) Animal behavior Genetics (Wednesdays class topic)

But there are questions we cannot answer

R. C. Lewontin (1998) The Evolution of Cognition: Questions we will never answer

Modern Language
Are there primitive languages?
No, not if native No data on language evolution But data on possibilities of language

But: pidgin-languages
Jargons, second language etc. And creolisation

Or emergence of new language

Nicaraguan sign language

Idea: proto-language
Bickerton

When did language emerge?

Two extremes:
Late emergence (~30 000 years ago) Early emergence (A. africanus)

Symbolic explosion?
Symbolic cultural artifacts are found in Neandertals and H. sapiens They are much older than previously thought They appear and disappear in the fossil record

Second Bull, Lascaux cave Photo: N. Aujoulat MCC-CNP

Against late emergence

How can complex language evolve so quickly? How does one explain biological adaptations to language? Homo sapiens started to spread much earlier than 5070 000 years ago
Would language have emerged in different places?

Deep history of language

Historical linguistics can reconstruct older forms of a language (e.g. indo-european)
Traditional linguistics up to ~8000 years ago

But:
Ruhlen claims proto-world Very unlikely Human expansion started about 150120 KA ago

After this time all similarities are gone

A summary of our knowledge

Language >100 000 years old No primitive languages exist, and we know little about how they spread very long ago
But we can observe emergence of new languages That all have certain special properties We can also observe incomplete languages

Language probably emerged as primitive proto-language

Why is an interesting, but hard-to-answer question

How did it spread, how did it emerge?

Cannot be reconstructed from fossils But possible to model And possible to compare to animal communication

Comparative data (1)

Vocal behavior in other species can aid understanding of speech Precursors
Primate vocal behavior the starting point

Parallel evolution
Song birds Whales Bats (?)

Comparative data (2)

Interesting when trying to establish how language can have evolved Less interesting if only to establish humans uniqueness
Sooner or later you will find similar behavior in other animals, or in other parts of cognition

Hocketts designfeatures

Ape Cognitive abilities

They can co-author scientific papers

Ape Cognitive abilities

They are, however very smart animals They can learn impressive lexicons
Mostly directed towards requests Their abilities to combine words are disputed
No rules, no recursion
Sue Savage Rumbaugh & Kanzi Photo: http://kanzi-superstar.blogspot.com/

Ape Cognitive abilities

Chimpanzees use large sets of vocal signals
But mostly innate Not discrete

Chimpanzees and gorillas use gestures

But dyadic Some learned through ritualization (not imitation)

Gibbon song

Geissman, 2002

Ape Cognitive abilities

Vocal culture in chimpanzees (Crockford et al. 2004) Some vocal learning in orangutans
Washington Post 4/3/2009

Kuypers-Jrgens hypothesis: control over mouth but not over larynx (Fitch 2010, 347-355)
Bonnie

Ape Cognitive abilities

Ability to cooperate is limited
But some cooperative hunting in chimps And elaborate knowledge of social hierarchy Chimps appear to be much less altruistic

Some degree of theory-of-mind

But much more limited than in humans

Ape Cognitive abilities

Recursion
Tamarin monkeys (Fitch & Hauser 2004): no Starlings (Gentner et al. 2006): yes Zebra finches (van Heijningen et al. 2009): no Pirah: no Brazilian Portuguese (university): yes Brazilian Portuguese (illiterate): no

What is recursion anyway?

Songbirds (1)

Doupe & Kuhl 1999

Songbirds (2)
Many species
Comparative studies possible Crossing studies possible (wild and domesticated bengalese finches) Manipulation possible (fewer ethical concerns)

Great diversity
Song complexity Degree of learning

But different
Neurologically Anatomically

Humpback whale song

Payne & McVay (1971)

Whales and dolphins

Humpback whales have complex, learned songs
But these appear to be fixed per season

Some dolphin species show very complex vocal behavior

Signature whistles

Hard to study, and relatively little is known

Less well-known vocalizers

Pinnipeds
(Seals etc.) Are capable of imitation For learning mating songs

Bats
Echolocation But also social vocalizations Learned in some species
Phyllostomus hastatus

Finally
Both biological and cultural evolution were important for language evolution Modern language tells us about our abilities, not about our history (unfortunately) Other species have complex vocal behavior, apes have many necessary precursors for language, but no vocal imitation