World of

CHEMISTRY

Chapter 2

Measurement s and Calculations

Scientific Notation
Scientific notation works by expressing very small or very large numbers as the product of two numbers that are individually much easier to deal with.  The first number is called the base.  The second number is a power of ten.  The base is usually written with only one digit in front of the decimal point.


ex. 2,500 would be written 2.5 103

The small numeral 3 in 103 is called the exponent.

Accuracy and Precision

accuracy  is the quality of being exact and free from error.  how close a measurement is to the true value. precision  is the degree of mutual agreement among a series of individual measurements, values, or results.

Why Is there Uncertainty?

Measurements are performed with instruments, and no instrument can read to an infinite number of decimal places

Significant Figures Which measurement is the best?

What is the measured value?

What is the measured value?

What is the measured value?

Significant Figures in Measurements

 Significant figures in a

measurement include all of the digits that are known, plus one more digit that is estimated.  Measurements must be reported to the correct number of significant

Rules for Counting Significant Figures

Non zeros always count as significant figures:

3456 has 4 significant figures

Rules for Counting Significant Figures

Zeros
Leading zeroes do not count as significant figures:

0.0486 has 3 significant figures

Rules for Counting Significant Figures

Zeros
Captive zeroes always count as significant figures:

16.07 has 4 significant figures

Rules for Counting Significant Figures Zeros

Trailing zeros are significant only if the number contains a written decimal point:

9.300 has 4 significant figures

Rules for Counting Significant Figures Two special situations have an unlimited number of significant figures: 1. Counted items
a) 23 people, or 425 thumbtacks

2. Exactly defined quantities

b) 60 minutes = 1 hour

Sig Fig Practice #1

How many significant figures in the following? 1.0070 m 17.10 kg 100,890 L 3.29 x 103 s 0.0054 cm 3,200,000 mL 5 dogs 5 sig figs 4 sig figs 5 sig figs 3 sig figs 2 sig figs 2 sig figs unlimited
This is a counted value These all come from some measurements

Significant Figures in Calculations

 In general a calculated answer

cannot be more precise than the least precise measurement from which it was calculated.  Sometimes, calculated values need to be rounded off.

Rounding Calculated Answers

 Rounding

Decide how many significant figures are needed (more on this very soon)  Round to that many digits, counting from the left  Is the next digit less than 5? Drop it.  Next digit 5 or greater? Increase


Rounding Calculated Answers

 Addition and Subtraction
 The

answer should be rounded to the same number of decimal places as the least number of decimal places in the problem.

Rounding Calculated Answers

 Multiplication and Division
 Round

the answer to the same number of significant figures as the least number of significant figures in the problem.

Rules for Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations

Multiplication and Division: Division: # sig figs in the result equals the number in the least precise measurement used in the calculation.

6.38 x 2.0 = 12.76 13 (2 sig figs)

Sig Fig Practice #2

Calculation 3.24 m x 7.0 m 100.0 g 23.7 cm3 Calculator says: 22.68 m2 Answer 23 m2

4.219409283 g/cm3 4.22 g/cm3 0.05 cm2 240 m/s 5870 lbft 2.96 g/mL

0.02 cm x 2.371 cm 0.04742 cm2 710 m 3.0 s 1818.2 lb x 3.23 ft 1.030 g x 2.87 mL 236.6666667 m/s 5872.786 lbft 2.9561 g/mL

Rules for Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations

Addition and Subtraction: Subtraction: The number of decimal places in the result equals the number of decimal places in the least precise measurement.

6.8 + 11.934 = 18.734

(3 sig figs)

18.7

Sig Fig Practice #3

Calculation 3.24 m + 7.0 m 100.0 g - 23.73 g 0.02 cm + 2.371 cm 713.1 L - 3.872 L 1818.2 lb + 3.37 lb 2.030 mL - 1.870 mL Calculator says: 10.24 m 76.27 g 2.391 cm 709.228 L 1821.57 lb 0.16 mL Answer 10.2 m 76.3 g 2.39 cm 709.2 L 1821.6 lb 0.160 mL

*Note the zero that has been added.

Two Systems of Units

 Science problem solving requires both: Metric system English system

International System of Units

Measurements depend upon

units that serve as reference standards The standards of measurement used in science are those of the Metric System

International System of Units

Metric system is now revised and named as the International System of Units (SI), as of 1960 It has simplicity, and is based on 10 or multiples of 10

7 base units, but only five

commonly used in chemistry: meter, kilogram, kelvin, second, and mole.

The Fundamental SI Units

(Le Systme International, SI)

Nature of Measurements
Measurement quantitative observation consisting of 2 parts: Part 1 number

Part 2

scale (unit)

Examples:
20

grams 34 6.63 x 10

Joule

seconds

International System of Units

Sometimes, non-SI units are used  Liter, Celsius, calorie Some are derived units  They are made by joining other units  Speed = miles/hour (distance/time)  Density = grams/mL

Distance and Length

Key Question: How do we accurately communicate length and distance?

Distance and Length

 measurement -

a quantity and a unit  distance is a length the amount of space between two points

Length
In SI, the basic unit of length is the meter (m)  Length is the distance between two objects measured with ruler We make use of prefixes for units larger or smaller

Units of Length
The common units of measurement in the English system are inches, feet, yards, and miles. These four length units are related to the meter.

Convert length

A football field is 100 yards long. What is this distance expressed in meters?

Knot (unit)
knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile (which is defined as 1.852 km) per hour, approximately 1.151 mph kn is preferred by the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), which includes every major seafaring nation; however, the abbreviations kt (singular) and kts (plural) are also widely used is a non-SI unit accepted for use with the International System of Units

1 international Knot =
1 nautical mile per hour 1.852 kilometres per hour (exactly), 0.514 metres per second, 1.151 miles per hour (approximately).

KNOTS
The U.S. adopted the international definition in 1954, having previously used the U.S. nautical mile (1,853.248 m). The U.K. adopted the international nautical mile definition in 1970, having previously used the U.K. Admiralty nautical mile

Conversions between common units of speed m/s 1 m/s = 1 km/h 3.6 mph knot ft/s

2.236936 1.943844 3.280840 0.621371 0.539957 0.911344 0.868976 1.466667 1.687810

1 km/h = 0.277778 1 1 mph = 0.44704

1.609344 1

1 knot = 0.514444 1.852 1 ft/s = 0.3048 1.09728

1.150779 1

0.681818 0.592484 1

Surface Area vs. Volume

 surface area is the measurement of the extent of an objects surface or area without including its thickness.  volume -

is a measure of the space occupied by a object.

Volume
The space occupied by any sample of matter. Calculated for a solid by multiplying the length x width x height; thus derived from units of length. 3) SI unit = cubic meter (m Everyday unit = Liter (L), which is non SI. (Note: 1mL = 1cm3)

Time
Key Question: How do we measure and describe time?

Time
T i W ime i i  . . e Time , , H m ime  : mi : e . i ime i lle ime i e l. ime: il e e

Time Units

Measuring Mass
kilogram  is

the mass of 1 liter of water or 1,000 cubic centimeters of water.

Units of Mass
Mass is a measure of the
quantity of matter present  eight is a force that measures the pull by gravity it changes with location Mass is constant, regardless of location

Working with Mass

The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg), even though a more convenient everyday unit is the gram Measuring instrument is the balance scale

Units of Temperature
Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold an object is.(Measured with a thermometer.) eat moves from the object at the higher temperature to the object at the lower temperature. We use two units of temperature:
 Celsius

named after Anders Celsius  Kelvin named after Lord Kelvin

Units of Temperature
Celsius scale defined by two readily determined temperatures:  Freezing point of water = 0 oC  Boiling point of water = 100 oC Kelvin scale does not use the degree sign, but is just represented by K

absolute zero = 0 K
negative values)

(thus no

Units of Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work, or to produce heat. Energy can also be measured, and two common units are:
1) Joule (J) = the SI unit of

energy, named after James Prescott Joule 2) calorie (cal) = the heat needed to raise 1 gram of water by 1 oC

Units of Energy
Conversions between joules and calories can be carried out by using the following relationship:

1 cal = 4.18 J
(sometimes you will see 1 cal = 4.184 J)

Conversion factors
A unique way of writing the number 1 In the same system they are defined quantities so they have an unlimited number of significant figures Equivalence statements always have this relationship: big # small unit = small # big unit 1000 mm = 1 m

Conversion factors
1 m = 100 cm 100 cm 100 cm

Conversion factors
1m 100 cm =

Conversion factors
1m 100 cm 1m 1m =

1
100 cm 1m

Conversion factors
1m 100 cm =

1
100 cm 1m

Conversion factors
Calle conversion factors eca se t e allo s to convert nits. reall j st lti l in one, in a creative a .

Dimensional Analysis solve A way to analyze and

problems, by using units (or dimensions) of the measurement Dimension = a unit (such as g, L, mL) Analyze = to solve
 Using

the units to solve the problems.

Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional Analysis provides an alternative approach to problem solving, instead of with an equation or algebra. A ruler is 12.0 inches long. ow long is it in cm? ( 1 inch = 2.54 cm) ow long is this in meters? A race is 10.0 km long. ow far is this in miles, if:
 

1 mile = 1760 yards 1 meter = 1.094 yards

Density
Which is heavier a pound of lead or a pound of feathers?  Most people will answer lead, but the weight is exactly the same  They are normally thinking about equal volumes of the two The relationship here between mass and volume is called Density

Density
The formula for density is: mass Density volume =
Common units are:

g/mL, or possibly g/cm3, (or g/L for

gas) Density is a physical property, and does not depend upon

- Page 90

Note temperature and density units

Density and Temperature

What happens to the density as the temperature of an object increases?  Mass remains the same  Most substances increase in volume as temperature increases

Thus, density generally decreases as the

Density and Water

Water is an important exception to the previous statement. Over certain temperatures, the volume of water increases as the temperature decreases (Do you want your water pipes to freeze in the winter?)  Does ice float in liquid water?

 Ice floats in liquid water

because hydrogen bonds more ordered, making ice less dense

Ice vs. Liquid Water