Learning Design

Birgit Mayer
17th May

Introduction
  

How can we help people to learn? What support do people need in order to learn? How can we assess and communicate the results of a learning process? How can we make learning and support as effective, efficient, attractive, and accessible as possible for everyone involved in the process?

Introduction
 

No straigthforward answer Depending on specific situation, solution X will work best for person Y Learning can be improved by making conditions explicit and by using this knowledge to design new learning events Learning design: Conceptual model for the description of teaching and learning processes

Learning design


Related to the nature of knowledge, learning, motivation, social exchange Learning design knowledge: captured by
  

Instructional design approaches: theories (set of design principles) Identifying best practice in teaching and learning Pedagogical design patterns (between theory and best practice) Teachers are influenced by these aspects w.r.t. their believes about good teaching and learning

Learning Design Definitions

(Koper, 2005)


Learning design


Application of learning design knowledge when developing a Unit of Learning Lesson, course, curriculum, learning event, etc. Quality of UoL depends on quality of learning design Every UoL has an underlying learning design that is more generic than the UoL itself

Unit of Learning (UoL)

  

Learning Design - Definitions



Learning designer
 

Teacher, coach, mentor, curriculum developers etc. Task is to design a UoL that meets a set of learning objectives
 

How does the designer proceed? What steps must be taken to develop e.g. an effective a course?

 

Best solution depends on the context of the e.g. course Requires to make use of design knowledge, i.e. set of rules that can be applied to the design problem

Learning Design Rules: What are they?

 

Koper (2005) Based on Reigeluth (1999)

 

Learning design knowledge = Instructional Design Theory Guidance on how to help people to learn and develop, including cognitive, emotional, social, physical, and spiritual aspects

Learning Design Rules: What are they?



Characteristics of Instructional Design Theory (Reigeluth, 1999)



Orientation towards design, focusing on the means to attain goals for learning and development (rather pre-scriptive than descriptive, but there is a bridge to the descriptive science of Learning Theory) Identification of methods of instruction, which are ways to support and facilitate instruction, and the situations in which those methods should and should not be used (situational, not universal, one method works best for situation X, another for situation Y) The methods are probabilistic rather than deterministic (increasing the chances of attaining the goals rather than ensuring attainment of the goals) Methods, learning outcome etc. have underlying values (e.g. people prefer certain methods above others)

Learning Design Rules: What are they?



Prescriptive, probabilistic, not value-free rules



If learning situation S (and value V) then use learning design method M (with probability P)

Learning Design Rules: Learning Situation



Contains factors that are of importance when selecting adequate learning design methods
 

Requirements to meet Descriptors of situation in which a new learning design method is applied Learning outcomes


Situational factors


Level of effectiveness, efficiency, attractiveness, accessibility of learning design method Characteristics of learning objectives, learners, setting, media

Learning conditions


Learning Design Rules: Situational Factors: Learning Outcomes



Effectiveness


How well learning objectives are met by learnig design method (e.g. number of students who passes a test) Labour intensity and cost of method (for learners to attain objective, for teachers to support learners) How much activities appeal to learners and teachers How easily learners and teachers can access learning facilities (location dependent?, time constraints?, adaptation?)

Efficiency


 

Attractiveness


Accessibility


Learning Design Rules: Situational Factors: Learning Conditions



Learning objectives


Knowledge, skills, attitudes, competences Pre-knowledge, motivation, situational circumstances Individual and/or group work, at school and/or home (A)synchronous, linear/interactive, media types

Learners


Setting


Media


Learning Design Rules: Learning Design Methods



Describes teaching/learning process



Process undertaken by persons interacting within a learning environment

Definition of roles, activities, activity structures, interaction, learning resources etc.

Derivation of Learning Design Rules

  

From instructional design theory (prescriptions) From best practice (examples) From patterns in best practice (patterns)

Derivation of Learning Design Rules: From Instructional Design Theories



E.g. based on the knowledgebase of learning research/theory 3 Main directions

  

Behaviourism Cognitivsm Constructivism

Behaviourism
Basic Principles Emphasis is on observable and measurable behaviors Learning happens when a correct response is demonstrated following the presentation of a specific environmental stimulus Black box" metaphor Emphasis is on relationships between environmental variables and behavior Instruction utilizes consequences and reinforcement of learned behaviors Embedded theories:e.g. Pavlov's Classical Conditioning Skinner's Operant Conditioning Stimulus-Response Theory Thorndike's Laws and Connectionism Information Processing Goals of Instruction Models Communicate or transfer behaviors representing knowledge and skills to the learner (does not consider mental processing) Instruction is to elicit the desired response from the learner who is presented with a target stimulus Learner must know how to execute the proper response as well as the conditions under which the response is made Learner acquires skills of discrimination (recalling facts), generalization (defining and illustrating concepts), association (applying explanations), and chaining (automatically performing a specified procedure) Instructional Models Computer-Based Instruction Contract Learning Individualized Instruction Programmed Instruction Information Processing Model

Implication for instruction Behavioral objectives Dick & Carey instructional design model Performance-based assessment Systems models

Dick&Carey Instructional Design Model

 

Predictable link between a stimulus and the response it produces in a learner It is the designer's responsibility
 

to determine the sub-skills a student must master in order for the behavior to be learned and to choose the stimulus and strategy for instruction in order to assemble the sub-skills Determine instructional goal Analyse the instructional goal Analyse learners and contexts Write performance objectives Develop assessment instruments Develop instructional strategy Develop and select instructional materials Design and conduct formative evaluation Revise instruction Summative evaluation

The basic steps

         

Programmed Instruction
  

 

Based on Skinner's "operant conditioning (behavior can be conditionned by rewarding the right stimulus-response patterns) Method of presenting new subject matters to students in a graded sequence of controlled steps Students work through the programmed material by themselves at their own speed and after each step test their comprehension by answering an examination question or filling in a diagram They are then immediately shown the correct answer or given additional information Computers and other types of teaching machines are often used to present the material, although books may also be used
 

Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced ("shaping") Reinforcements will generalise across similar stimuli ("stimulus generalisation") producing secondary conditioning

Cognitivism
Basic Principles
Learning is a change of knowledge state Knowledge acquisition is described as a mental activity that entails internal coding and structuring by the learner Learner is viewed as an active participant in the learning process Emphasis is on the building blocks of knowledge Emphasis on structuring, organizing and sequencing information to facilitate optimal processing Focus is on how learners remember, retrieve, and store information in memory Examines the mental structure and processes related to learning Learning is viewed as an active process that occurs within the learner and which can be influenced by the learner Embedded theories: e.g.
Component Display Theory (Merril) Dual Coding Theory (Paivio) Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth) Gestalt Theory (Wertheimer) Mental Models (Norman) Subsumption Theory (Ausubel)

Goals of Instruction Models Communicate or transfer knowledge in the most efficient, effective manner Focus of instruction is to create learning or change by encouraging the learner to use appropriate learning strategies

Instructional Models Keller's ARCS Model of Motivation Merrills Component Display Model

Implication for instruction Learning results when information is stored in memory in an organized, meaningful way Teachers/designers are responsible for assisting learners in organizing information in an optimal way so that it can be readily assimilated Cognitive objectives Learning strategies Learning taxonomies Prerequisite skills Task analysis

Merrill's Component Display Model



Classifies learning along two dimensions

 

Content (facts, concepts, procedures, principles) Performance (remembering, using, generalities)

Primary presentation forms (expository/inquisitory x generality/instance learning strategies)

   

Rules (expository presentation of a generality) Examples (expository presentation of instances) Recall (inquisitory generality) Practice (inquisitory instance) Prerequisites Objectives Helps Mnemonics Feedback

Secondary presentation forms:

    

Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth)

  

Instruction should be organised in increasing order of complexity Learner needs to develop a meaningful context into which subsequent ideas and skills can be assimilated 7 Major strategy components:
   

  

Elaborative sequence (simple complex) Learning prerequisite sequences Summary (e.g. at lesson, unit level) Synthesis (integrate content elements into a meaningful whole and assimilate them into prior knowledge) Analogies (relate the content to learners' prior knowledge) Cognitive strategy activators (e.g. pictures, diagrams, mnemonics) Learner control

Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001)


Classifying learning objectives: Verb + Noun



Two-dimensional


Verb: Cognitive process dimension (underlying continuum is complexity)



Remember, understand, apply, analyse, evaluate, create Factual, conceptual, procedural, metacognitive

Noun: Knowledge dimension (continuum: concrete abstract)



Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001)
Knowledge Dimension Cognitive Process Dimension
Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create

Factual Conceptual Procedural Metacognitive

Discovery Learning
 

 

Inquiry-based learning method Problem solving situations where the learner draws on his own experience and prior knowledge to discover the truths that are to be learned It is a personal, internal, constructivist learning environment "Rich" environments: (Perkins) Combination of five basic resources:


  

Information banks - allow access to required information (e.g., books, encyclopedias, videos) Symbols pads - supports learners' short-term memory (e.g., notebooks, laptops) Construction kits - facilitates manipulation and building (e.g., Lego) Phenomenaria - allows exploration (e.g., terrarium, computer simulation) Task managers - gives help and feedback when tasks are completed (e.g., teachers, electronic tutors)

Constructivism
Basic Principles Learners build personal interpretation of the world based on experiences and interactions Knowledge is embedded in the context in which it is used (authentic tasks in meaningful realistic settings) There are many ways (multiple perspectives) of structuring the world and its entities Meaning is imposed by the individual rather than existing in the world Embedded theories:e.g.
Cognitive Flexibility Theory (Spiro et al.) Generative Learning Theory (Wittrock) Situated Cognition (Clancey, Lave) Social-Cultural Learning (Vygotsky)

Goals of Instruction Models Build personal interpretations of the world based on individual experiences and interactions Learning is an active process of constructing rather than acquiring knowledge Instruction is a process of supporting knowledge construction rather than communicating knowledge Do not structure learning for the task, but engage learner in the actual use of the tools in real world situations Learning activities should be authentic and should center around the problematic or puzzlement as perceived by the learner The focus is on the process not the product Role of teacher is a mentor not a teller Encourage reflective thinking, higher order learning skills

Instructional Models Action Learning Authentic Learning Case-Based Learning Cognitive Apprenticeship Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext Collaborative Learning Communities of Practice Computer-Supported Intentional Learning Environments (CSILEs) Discovery Learning Distributed Learning Inquiry-Based Learning Microworlds/Simulations Implication for Instruction Authentic assessment methods Learning through exploration Problem-oriented activities "Rich" environments Visual formats and mental models

Learning Theories: General Practice of Instructional Design



Designing from a behaviorist/cognitivist approach



 

Designer analyses the learning situation and sets a goal, objective, decides what is important for the learner to know and attempts to transfer that knowledge to the learner Individual tasks are broken down, learning objectives are developed Evaluation consists of determining whether the criteria for the objectives have been met (e.g. perfomance tests)

Learning Theories: General Practice of Instructional Design



Designing from a constructivist approach:



Designer produces a product that is much more facilitative than prescriptive The content is not prespecified, direction is determined by the learner and assessment is much more subjective because it does not depend on specific quantitative criteria, but rather the process and self-evaluation of the learner The standard pencil-and-paper tests of mastery learning are not used in constructive design; instead, evaluation is based on notes, early drafts, final products and journals

First Principles of Instruction Merril (2002)



Identified 5 principles (basic methods) that can be found in a variety of design/instructional theories and models


Apply regardless of instructional program or practice described by a given theory or model Learners are engaged in solving real-world problems Existing knowledge is activated as a foundation for new knowledge New knowledge is demonstrated to the learner New knowledge is applied by the learner New knowledge is integrated into the learners world

Learning is promoted when

    

Derivation of Learning Design Rules: From Best Practice



Using learning design method of specific example courses



Set up database of accessible and usable courses or course components (e.g. Merlot 2004) Set up database of learning design methods (e.g. frameworks, lesson plans as guidelines for designing new courses) Situational characteristics Indication of quality (e.g. probability of success, peer review, expert review, quality ratings of users)

Awareness of
 

Chance of finding a successful example that matches with own needs is not very high due to conditions Internet offers option to share examples, lesson plans with others (e.g. overview of databases by Van Es, 2004)

Derivation of Learning Design Rules: From Patterns in Best Practice



Analysis of patterns in collections of comparable best practices

   

Reflect experience of experts Concise description Solve recurrent problems in a learning design Can be used as templates for designing UoL Analysing common structures in a set of learning design methods (inductive way) Meetings with experienced learning designers to identify recurrent problems and generic models for solutions (deductive way, more popular)

Two ways of creating patterns:



Summary


Learning designer uses learning design knowledge to create a learning design method for a course Learning design knowledge consists of series of rules taking the if situation, then method format Rules are derived from theory, best practices, patterns

Implication for eLearning Settings

 

To enable learning designers to search for, share and re-use learning design methods, there is the need of a standard notation Requirements
    

  

Comprehensive Support of blended learning, pure online learning Pedagogical flexible Personalisation/Adaptivity: Description of conditions Identification, isolation, de-contextualisation, exchange, re-use of parts of the learning design (e.g. patterns) Standardised, in line with other existing standards Formal language in order to be processed automatically Enabling a learning design to be abstracted so that repeated execution in different settings and with different persons becomes possible

IMS Learning Design Specification

IMS Learning Design Specification



Digital format for encoding, transporting, and playing learning designs A model for describing the structure of tasks and activities, their assignment to roles, and the workflow of a Unit of Learning as a Learning Design


Who does what, when, using which materials/services to attain which learning objectives

A platform-independent notational convention to allow sharing and re-using of these designs



The structure of the learning scenario is separated from the learning materials and services
 

Materials can be reused within different scenarios Scenarios can be reused and new materials added

IMS Learning Design Specification



Core concepts


Regardless of the pedagogical/instructional approach, a Person gets a Role in the teaching-learning process (e.g. learner or teacher) In this Role he or she works towards certain Outcomes by performing more or less structured Learning and/or Support Activities within an Environment The overall scenario or design (e.g. which Role gets which Activities at what moment in the process) is described within the Method element

Formula of Learning Design Rules



If

Learning Situation required level of effectiveness, efficiency, attractiveness, accessibility AND characteristics of learning objectives, learners, setting, media AND Values of learning designer Learning Design Method a play of one or more sequential acts with one or more parallel role-parts taking into account a set of conditions for the play, act, or role-part A certain probability of success

then

with

Thank you for your attention!!!!

ISD phases


Analysis


Instructional problem Instructional scenario Learning flow Xml coding resources Publication and run of UoL

Design
  

Development


Implementation


Evaluation

Bloom


three domains of learning: Cognitive (what we know or think), Psychomotor (what we do, physically) and Affective (what we feel, or what attitudes we have). These taxonomies still influence the design of instruction.

General Concept of Learning Design

Sharing and Re-using  The design needs to be described



at a sufficient level of abstraction that it can be generalised beyond the single teaching and learning context for which it is created, but not at such an abstract level that the pedagogical value and richness is lost

IMS-Learning Design intends to solve this

IMS LD Elements


Roles


Represent the type of a participant in a UoL

 

Staff (e.g. teacher, tutor) Learner

Activities


Link between Roles and Environment



An Activity references the Role by which it has to be executed as well as the Environment in which the activity has to be executed Learning Activity: directed at attaining a learning objective Support Activity: meant to facilitate a Role performing one or more learning activities Provides the mechanisms to structure Activities and UoL (Sequence vs. Selection) Can reference other Activities, Activity-Structures, external UoL

Types
 

Can be aggregated into an Activity-Structure

 

IMS LD Components


Environment
 

Is the setting were Activities take place Consists of the appropriate Learning Objects and Services to be used during the performance of the Activities Learning Objects


Digital or non-digital resources



Web pages, text books, productivity tools (text processors, editors, calculators, ...), instruments (microscope, etc.), test items,.

Services


Facilities that are helpful in completing activities

   

Communication services (e.g. mail, discussion forums, chat) Monitoring services Search services

IMS LD Elements


Method (link between all components)



Can be designed towards



Learning Objectives to be met by learners



Specified at the level of UoL or for individual learning activities Overall entry requirements for learners for doing a UoL Specified at the level of UoL or for individual learning activities

Prerequisites
 

Contains a Play and Conditions



Play specifies which Roles perform what Activities in what order

   

The Play consists of a sequence of Acts Each Act contains one or more Role-Parts Each Role-Part associates a Role with an Activity or Activity-Structure When an Act is completed, the next Act can start

Conditions are used in connection with Properties for further refinement and to add personalisation facilities to the LD

Building a UoL Narrative

           

Title - a very short description Provided by - author, institution, etc. Pedagogy/Type of learning - case-based, problem-based, etc. Description/Context - idem Learning objectives - idem Roles: - the various participants, such as student, tutor, etc. Different types of learning content used - texts, internet pages Different types of learning services/facilities/tools used Different types of collaborative activities Learning activity workflow - how Actors / Content / Services interact Scenarios - e.g., same content may be used for face-to-face and distance learning Other needs / Specific requirements - e.g. accessibility, specific target groups, etc.