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Introduction
Transmission system provide link between nodes Information carried by them is classified as: Analog (varying signal e.g. ?) Digital (discrete values e.g. ?)
Bandwidth
Digital system (bits per sec vs bauds per sec) Analog system (range of frequency which can be carried by a channel i.e. (Fh-FL)
Introduction
Analog signal can be transmitted over analog or digital channel e.g. ? Digital signal can be transmitted over digital or analog channel e.g. ? Advantage of digital signal over analog signal is immunity to noise and ease of detection Disadvantage of digital signal is ?
Introduction
If the capacity of link is more then the requirement of signal to be transmitted then it can be shared between users At sender side signals of users are combined to make composite signal with wider bandwidth also called broad band channel or bearer channel i.e. multiplexing At receiver side they are separated i.e. demultiplexing Two main techniques used for this purpose are : FDM (Spatial sharing) TDM (Temporal sharing)
Decibels (dB)
It is ratio of two electrical quantities such as watt, volts and amperes If we pass a signal through a device then it will suffer loss or achieve gain Input Signal Output Signal Ratio = Output / Input
If O/P is > I/P then Gain If O/P is < I/P then Loss Gain is represented by + Loss is represented by -
Decibel (dB)
It was invented by Bell telecomm USA Input >-- Amp #1 --- Amp #2 --> Output A1 = 275 .. A2 = 55 In the example, the total gain factor At = 275 x 55 = 15,125 Aim was to use logs for ease of calculation i.e. Log A1 + log A2 thus bell was introduced i.e. gain in Bell = Log A Using Bels meant working to at least two decimal places rounding things off to one decimal place, meant introducing error since 4.179 bels is a power gain of 15,101 while 4.2 bels is a power gain of 15,849, yielding an error of about 5%. Solution was to express power gain in units which were equal to one-tenth of a Bel, or in decibels. This simply meant that the gain in Bels would be multiplied by 10 i.e. Gain in decibels (dB) = 10 log A
Decibel (dB)
Useful Rules for calculations in dB : Log is exponent thus : Log 1(10 0) = 0 Log 10(10 1) = 1 Log 100(10 2) = 2 Log 1000(10 3) = 3 Log 1/10(10 -1) = -1 Log 1/100(10 -2) = -2 Log 1/1000(10 -3) = -3
dBr
It is relative level of signal at any point with respect to reference point It would be algebraic sum of gains and losses between that point and reference point dBmo = dBm (Absolute level) dBr (Reference level)
2 to 4 Wire Conversion
Telephone sets are 4 wire devices i.e. 2 wires for microphone and two wires for ear phone but extension of 4 wires from subscriber to exchange is not cost effective solution therefore 2 wires are used The connection between exchanges is 4 wire as all the repeaters are unidirectional We need a device for conversion of 4 wires signals to 2 wire and vice versa A Hybrid Transformer is used to convert a 2-wire circuit to a 4-wire system Hybrid provides isolation between send and receive path
Hybrid
Amplifier or Regenerator
2-wires 2-wires
transmit
receive
2-wires
Hybrid
Hybrid
2-wires
2-wires receive
2-wires transmit
Amplifier
Hybrid
Hybrid is a transformer with four separate windings One is used for 4 wire transmit path One is used by 4 wire receive path One is used for 2 wire side One is used for balancing circuit which is used for balancing the 2 wire line impedance
2 to 4 Wire Conversion
Send Amplifier
Receive Amplifier
Working of Hybrid
Output from receive amplifier causes equal voltage to be induced in secondary windings of T1 Matching NW winding are connected in opposite Thus equal but opposite current flows in secondary of T2 If impedance is exactly matched then nothing will be coupled to transmit path Input power has been equally shared by 2-wire and matching NW i.e. 3 db loss has occurred Once signal is applied from 2 wire side again power will be equally divided between send and receive amplifier i.e. 3db loss
Echo
If impedance matching NW impedance dose not matches with impedance of 2 wire then part of received signal will be coupled/reflected back to sender through trans path This reflected energy is called echo and it can be classified as : Talker echo :- when talker hears his/her own :voice Listener echo :- when listener hears talkers :voice twice Talker echo is more troublesome as it is louder
Listener/Talker Echo
Talker Be+6dB Listener
Talker Echo:
Listener Echo:
Loss = Be + 2L
Loss = 2Be + 2L
Echo
Effect of echo depends on relative echo level and on the delay
The stronger the echo and the longer the delay, the more troublesome the echo
Echo
There is a limit to which the loss of connection can be increased Increasing further loss will decrease loudness of signal Maximum value set for this is normally 40 ms
Loss (dB)
Echo
For longer circuits echo suppressors or echo cancellers are used Echo suppressor is fitted in one path of 4 wire & is operated by speech signals of other side Echo canceller echo canceller employs a digital adaptive filter to set up a model or characterization of the voice signal As a voice path passes back through the cancellation system, the echo canceller compares the signal and the model to cancel existing echo dynamically
Stability
If the balance return loss is small and gain is high then net gain may exceed 0 and singing will occur Singing can be regarded as excessive echo
Stability
The net loss of singing path Ls = 2 (B + Lp) where B is balance return loss due to reflection at hybrid and Lp is sum of losses between 2-W to 2-W ZB ZL Thus singing path loss equals B ! 20log
S
10
ZB ZL
Ls > 0 , B + Lp >0 ,G < B Singing point defines maximum gain w/o singing = B Stability margin defines maximum amount of additional gain that can be introduced on both sides = B + Lp
Multiplexing
n Lines share bandwidth of one link Multiplexer combines n inputs into single stream (many to one) De multiplexer separates them back in to individual components (one to many) Channel carries stream
FDM
Signal generated by each device modulate different carrier frequencies Modulated signals are then combined into one composite signal Channels are separated by unused bandwidth called guard bands
FDM (MUX)
FDM
Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 KHz. We need to combine three voice channels into a link with a bandwidth of 12 KHz, from 20 to 32 KHz. Show the configuration using the frequency domain without the use of guard bands.
FDM
FDM
TDM
TDM (Synchronous)
TDM (Interleaving)
PCM
PCM
E -1 (30 Channels)
We have total of 32 channels Channel # 0 is used for synchronization/frame alignment Channel # 16 is used to carry signalling information Total bit rate would be 8000 x 8 x 32 = 2.048 Mbit/s
T -1 (24 Channels)
We have total of 24 channels First bit is used for frame alignment 24 (eight bit) Channels are used to carry speech information Total bit rate would be 8000 x (8 x 24 +1) = 1.544 Mbit/s
T 1 (24 Channels)
PDH
PDH Frame
Bit interleaving is used which dose not allow Add/Drop facility Overhead bits are used for two purposes : Frame alignment (E-1/Block,T-1/Distributed) Justification (If I/P rate is slow then justification bits added)
ITU introduced SDH multiplexing hierarchy Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) is American version of the ITU (SDH) SDH composite bit rates are chosen to be identical to three of the eight lower SONET bit rates These bit rates have become worldwide the most widely used ones
SLR Send Loudness Rating CLR Circuit Loudness Rating RLR Receive Loudness Rating Poor/Bad 1% 4% 10% 20% 90% 80% 65% 45%
Good/Excellent
Digital Transmission
Digital transmission links impairment : Bit error rate (percentage of bits with errors relative to total number of transmitted bits) Slip (loss of consecutive digits due to failure of sync) Jitter (short-term variations of digital signal from their ideal positions in time) Wander (long-term variations of digital signal from their ideal positions in time )
Errored second (ES) An errored second is any second in which one or more bits are in error Severely errored second (SES) A severely errored second has an error rate of 10-3 or higher Degraded minutes A degraded minute (DM) occurs when there is a 10 -6 or worse bit error rate during 60 seconds
Transmission Systems
Customer Lines
POTS, for Plain Old Telephone Service (Smallest wire guage to provide minimum resistance) Multi-party line offered ISDN
There are two basic types of ISDN service: Basic Rate Interface consists of two 64 kb/s B channels and one 16 kb/s D channel for a total of 144 kb/s. This basic service is intended to meet the needs of most individual users PRI is intended for users with greater capacity requirements. Typically the channel structure is 23 B channels plus one 64 kb/s D channel for a total of 1536 kb/s. In Europe, PRI consists of 30 B channels plus one 64 kb/s D channel for a total of 1984 kb/s
Transmission Systems
Junction Circuits
Cables with large no of conductors FDM carrier system introduced PCM primary multiplexer systems used on routes requiring large number of circuits
Trunk Circuit
Latest trend is to use digital communication on fiber optics Satellite communication systems for long haul communication Submarine cables an alternative