Philosophy of curriculum evaluation development

Prof. Colin J Marsh Curtin University

The focus will be upon:

What is curriculum? Process components of curriculum.

Session 1

What is curriculum?
What does the term mean? Is it simply using whatever means to achieve desirable ends? But then complications emerge:
What should be included in the curriculum for schools? Who decides what should count? Who controls the selection? How do we know if the curriculum has been learned?

Consider the following statements and indicate whether you agree or disagree with them: Agree Disagree
The curriculum should stress societal needs over individual needs. Not all subject matters are created equal. Curriculum should focus on personal purpose: the need for personal integration. Curriculum should provide the tools for individual survival in an unstable and changing world. The established disciplines of knowledge are essential. The curriculum materials, when used by intended learners, should produce specified learning competencies. Curriculum should reflect current real-life situations.

Definition 1
Curriculum is such permanent subjects as grammar, reading, logic, rhetoric, mathematics, and the great books that best embody essential knowledge.

Reflection Many curriculum frameworks are based on this approach Problems It is limited to only academic subjects It assumes that the state of knowledge doesnt change

Definition 2
Curriculum is those subjects that are most useful for living in contemporary society.

Reflection
It focuses on the here and now It doesnt preclude students from making their own choices

Problems
It assumes that what is contemporary is better than what is long-lasting. It encourages students to accommodate to society rather than trying to improve it.

Definition 3
Curriculum is all planned learnings for which the school is responsible

Reflection It includes all written documents and ideas about what students should know It is a commonly held view of curriculum Problems It assumes that what is studied is what is learned It may cause teachers to simply select those planned learnings which are easiest to achieve Does this exclude unplanned learnings?

Definition 4
Curriculum cannot be described by its outward features, but rather by the point of view of the thinking from which it springs. A curriculum is something to be felt rather than something to be seen.

Reflection
It has an important emphasis on experiencing a curriculum.

Problems
How do you decide what to include? Would this lead to major variations between schools?

Definition 5
Curriculum is all the experiences learners have under the guidance of the school

Reflection

It is assumed that the curriculum is the sum of the meanings students experience as they engage in the activities of the school It includes both planned and unplanned experiences

Problems
It provides no basis for differentiating between desirable & undesirable experiences It may make the tasks of the school impossibly broad

Definition 6
Curriculum is questioning of areas of authority and searching for more complex views of human situations

Reflection
It suggests the need to develop new terms and new ways of thinking (post modern forms of thinking). It encourages students to question claims to truth.

Problems
Is a solid knowledge background needed before questioning occurs? Is it too general, too vague?

Definition 7
Curriculum is what the student constructs from working with the computer and its various networks (Internet, World Wide Web).

Reflection
Students use computers as part of the natural landscape. It encourages students to make their own meaning.

Problems
Not all students have the same levels of access. Web-based orientations may be biased.

Definition 8
Curriculum is the totality of learning experiences provided to learners so that they can attain general skills and knowledge at a variety of learning sites

Reflection
It emphasizes other learning sites in addition to schools. It highlights generic skills and being flexible.

Problems.
It can lead to an emphasis upon a large number of outcomes and highly specific requirements. It has a vocational emphasis.

Definition 9
Curriculum is all the experiences that learners have in the course of living

Reflection
It places emphasis on the personal and social character of curriculum It emphasizes the individuals own capacity to direct his/her own life.

Problems
It makes no distinction between what happens in school and what happens in life generally It suggests that school has no special responsibilities for curriculum Who decides the course of individual lives?

Review of Definitions
Are there any diverse values implicit in these definitions? Does any particular definition gives rise to problems & questions?

A Working Definition (Marsh & Willis, 2003)

Curriculum is an interrelated set of plans and activities that a student experiences under the guidance of the school

Points to note about this definition:

The curriculum is an amalgam of planned & unplanned activities Importance of both teachers & students Students experience the curriculum Under the guidance of the school refers to a wide range of activities within and out of class

My definition
Curriculum is

Hidden Curriculum (Jackson, 1968)

the social requirements of learning at school are often hidden three elements of the hidden curriculum are:
- the crowded nature of the classroom - contradictory allegiances required of teachers & peers - unequal power relations of teachers over students

Hidden Curriculum (ctd)

Hidden curriculum involved the learning of attitudes, norms, beliefs, values & assumptions often expressed as rules, rituals & regulations (Seddon, 1983) These rules, rituals & regulations are rarely questioned & are just taken for granted

Examples of Hidden Curriculum

arrangement of time, facilities & materials kinds & frequency of examinations grading & assessments systems texts treated as the most authoritative sources of knowledge arrangement of school subjects & timetable school uniform requirements

Null Curriculum (Eisner, 1979)

what schools do not teach is as important as what they do teach certain intellectual processes and subject ideas can be either present or absent in a school curriculum

Null Curriculum (Intellectual Processes)

in most schools the intellectual processes which are emphasized are cognitive processes involving use of words & numbers there are other intellectual processes which are non verbal & non-rule abiding these modes of thought operate in the visual, auditory, metamorphic & poetic ways these processes are reflected in schools

Null Curriculum (content or subject matter)

most schools teach virtually the same subject matter they maintain a tradition subjects that are part of a tradition are there because they create predictability, & they sustain stability subjects that are given little or no time include the visual arts, music.

Syllabus
is typically a listing of content to be taught in a single course it sometimes includes a small number of general aims & objectives it provides detailed information to teachers about what is to be taught a syllabus can be subscribed in a curriculum

Curriculum Guide
typically includes a listing of content but also aims, objectives, specific materials & activities, possible experiences & forms of evaluation it can be for one course or a series of courses

Session 2

Fundamental process elements of curriculum

Content this may be depicted as topics, themes or concept maps Purpose usually categorised as intellectual, social & personal purposes of schooling Organisation planning is based upon scope & sequence (Walker, 1990)

Fraenkels (1980) process questions

what information, skills, attitudes & values are students to learn and why? what characteristics do students possess? What have they already learned? How might these prior learnings & characteristics affect further learning? what particular information shall students study? Why? How might this be information be organised?

Process Questions (ctd)

what kinds of learning activities can help students learn or acquire various knowledge, skills, attitudes, values? How might these learning experiences be organised? what kinds of teacher operations can help students attain various desired objectives?

Process Questions (ctd)

How can the effects of instruction be evaluated How can objectives, subject matters, learning activities, teaching strategies & evaluative measures be organised & interrelated so as to encourage learning?

The Process Components of Curriculum

Although there are different emphasis and priorities most curriculum planners will use specific components, even if they are used in a different order. They include: What? How? When? So what? (objectives/outcomes) (use of specific learning activities) (organizing/sequencing learning activities) (checking on what has been learnt)

Ralph Tyler s principles

Objectives

What educational goals should the school seek to attain? How can learning experiences be selected which are likely to be useful in attaining these objectives.

Selecting learning experiences

Organizing learning experiences

How can learning experiences be organized for effective instruction?

Evaluation

How can the effectiveness of learning experiences be evaluated?

Curriculum sources

Student

Contemporary society

Subject matter

Tentative general objectives

Screens

Philosophy of education

Philosophy of learning

Precise instructional objectives

Tyler rationale for curriculum

Objectives for Curriculum

How do we know which ones to select? What do we use as our sources? Do we derive our objectives from:
What we know of the learners. What we consider are important life skills What subject specialists tell us is important. Our philosophy of teaching and education. Our understanding about how children learn.

Some educators use very specific objectives termed behavioural objectives. Students have to do observable activities (e.g. to list, add, demonstrate) under certain conditions (e.g. using only certain equipment, time limits) and to an acceptable level of performance (e.g. in time taken, accuracy).

Instructional objectives are not as specific. They provide some criteria for teachers to use in terms of: Scope Suitability Validity Feasibility

Example
The objectives for a topic might focus on a problem Or They could be based on particular concepts taken from a discipline. Which is preferable? Why

Consider the following examples:

How is pollution being controlled in the Singapore River? Give examples of erosion and deposition which occurs along the northern coast of Singapore?

Outcome statements
They are now widely used in many countries. Some special characteristics include: They concentrate upon outputs rather than inputs. They are broad descriptions of student competencies not connected to specific content or teaching They reflect long term learning of significances beyond school.

Health & Physical Education example

The student understands how factors influence personal health behaviours and how to appraise their own and others health, safety and physical activity practices (Strand Outcome Statement).

Science example
The student demonstrates an awareness that energy is present in daily life (Foundation Outcome Statement).

Deciding upon Learning Activities & Content

Deciding upon these is very important and includes:
The physical arrangement of the classroom. The modes of instruction the teacher will use. The ways in which the student activities are organized and coordinated.

Physical arrangement of classroom/learning environment

What is the pattern of furniture and space? Does this pattern aid student learning? How easy is student and teacher movement? How effectively is shared space used?

Modes of Instruction
Teacher directed/student-centered emphasis in lessons
Modes of instruction Intro Major activity Concl Teacher role Students role Organizati on mode

Lecturing/ Teacher talks

Presents informatio n

Listen and respond

Total class

Practice drills

T/P

Repeats examples until skill mastered Presents questions

Respond and practice

Total class/ Small groups

Directed questioning

T/P

Respond with answer, occasion al questions

Total class/small groups/ individual

Modes of Instruction
Teacher directed/student-centred emphasis in lessons
Modes of instruction Discussion Intro Major activity T/P Concl Teacher role Questions, listens, responds Presents information materials Directs activities Students role Listen, respond, question Observe, listen, practise Engage in activities Organization mode Total class/ Small groups/ Individual Total class/ Small groups Small groups/ individual

Demonstrati on

T/P

Problem solving/inqui ry

T/P

Modes of Instruction
Teacher directed/student-centred emphasis in lessons
Modes of instruction Role playing, simulation games Small group activity Independent study Intro Major activit y P Concl Teacher role Students role Participate/ Act out Participate, interact, report Initiates, engages in activities Organization mode Small groups

T/P

Introduces, monitors Introduces, supervisors Facilitates, monitors

T/P

Small groups

Individual

T = Teacher directed P = Pupil centred

Organizing/Sequencing Learning Activities

Although many teachers contend that they know intuitively which modes of instruction/learning experiences to select and how to sequence them, the following are useful reminders:

Organizing/Sequencing Learning Activities

All students learn differently and therefore teachers should select from a wide variety so that they dont disadvantage some students. No single approach is better than another. The learning experience used must be broad enough to achieve the teaching objectives/objectives. The learning experiences should be appropriate to students interests and abilities.

Methods of sequencing the content

Integration - arranging content for learning activities that builds upon what has been learnt in other subjects. Manageably sized units - breaking the content and learning experiences into manageable steps to facilitate learning. Simple to complex - present simple ideas before complex ones are used.

Commonly Used Assessment Techniques

Techniques Informal observing and recording of student behaviour Diagnostic Anecdotal records Case histories Check lists Rating scales by teacher Unobtrusive techniques Formative Anecdotal records Case histories Check lists Rating scales by teacher Unobtrusive techniques Summative Anecdotal records Case histories Check lists Rating scales by teacher Unobtrusive techniques

Commonly Used Assessment Techniques

Techniques Informal collecting of information from students Diagnostic Interest inventories Rating scales by students Questionnaires Interviews Sociograms Self-reports Formative Interest inventories Rating scales by students Questionnaires Interviews Sociograms Self-reports Summative Interest inventories Rating scales by students Questionnaires Interviews Sociograms Self-reports

Commonly Used Assessment Techniques

Techniques Analysis of student work examples Diagnostic Individual and group projects Content analysis of work books Logbooks and journals Portfolios Formative Individual and group projects Content analysis of work books Logbooks and journals Portfolios Summative Individual and group projects Content analysis of work books Logbooks and journals Portfolios

Commonly Used Assessment Techniques

Techniques Testing of students Diagnostic Objective test Standardised tests Essay tests Semantic differentials Attitude scales Simulation and role plays Projective techniques Formative Objective tests Standardised tests Essay tests Semantic differentials Attitude scales Simulation and role plays Projective techniques Summative
Objective tests Standardised tests Essay tests Semantic differentials Attitude scales Simulation and role plays Projective techniques

Planning in Curriculum: Is there a best way?

The logical planning steps are to start with objectives/outcomes and then go to learning activities and evaluation. Planners can start at any point and work forwards or backwards. For example, start with a particular assessment and use this as your focus. Curriculum planning is like doing a jigsaw puzzle.