Comparative Anatomy Bone

Note Set 7 Chapters 7, 8, & 9

Bone Legacy


Exoskeleton or dermal skeleton

Dermal bony armor of ostracoderms  Bony scales in ancient fish


Cranial dermal armor arose from neural crest cells

Endoskeleton
Internal to skin  Where once exoskeleton



Ex: clavicle, nasal, frontal, and parietal bone

Other endoskeletal elements were never part of the dermal skeleton



Ex: scapula, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, brain case, and extremity bones

Bone Evidence
  

All bone develops from mesenchyme Neural crest cells Membrane bone- arises from mesenchyme bonewithout passing through cartilaginous intermediate


exoskeleton endoskeleton

Replacement bone- arises from existing cartilage bone

Endoskeletal Tissues


Visceral Skeleton
 

Jaw cartilages and ear ossicles



Weberian ossicles of fish (ear ossicles)

Derived from transverse processes of anterior most vertebrae

Somatic Skeleton
Remaining internal bones developing from mesoderm proper  Somite and scleratome


 

Axial Skeleton Appendicular Skeleton

Vertebrae Development
 
     

Arise from sclerotome cells of somites Morphogenesis

Sclerotome divides into posterior and anterior halves Halves join with segments of adjacent sclerotomes Centrum formed from junction Vertebrae are intersegmental Myotome doesnt move Posterior segment forms costal process


Site of rib attachment

Vertebrae Development

Figure 9.1: (a) sclerotome divides (b) halves join with adjacent halves of next sclerotome (c) junction forms centrum. Figure 9.2: Developing vertebral column showing intersegmental position.

Axial Skeleton Vertebrae

  


Cartilaginous or bony From occipital region to tail Vertebrae types based on centrum structure
Centrum is common feature in all vertebrae

Centrum Structure



AcelousAcelous- flat anterior and posterior surface

Mammals




AmphicelousAmphicelous- concavities of anterior and posterior surfaces

Fish, primitive salamanders




ProcelousProcelous- concanvity on anterior surface

Most reptiles




OpisthocelousOpisthocelous- concavity of posterior surface

Most salamanders




Heterocelous- saddleHeterocelous- saddle-shaped

Neck of birds and turtles

Figure 9.3: Vertebral types based on articular surface of centra.

Vertebrae Evolution


Transition from crossopterygians to labyrinthodonts Different types of vertebrae came from primitive, rachitomous labyrinthodont vertebrae


Two pleurocentra and U-shaped Uhypocentrum Hypocentrum is lost and pleurocentrum enlarges and gives rise to centrum of modern amniote

Figure 9.4: Modifications from labyrinthodont to modern amniote vertebrae. Hypocentrum is diagonal lines. Pleurocentrum is red.

Vertebrae Grouping
 


Grouped according to body region Amphibians

First to possess a cervical vertebrae

Figure 9.6: Regions of vertebral column Figure 9.5: Single cervical vertebrae of anuran.

Reptile Vertebrae


Atlas as 1st and axis as 2nd cervicals Turtle: 8 cervicals, 2 sacrals, 10 dorsals, 16-30 16caudals Alligator: 8 cervicals, 11 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 2 sacrals, up to 40 caudals

Figure 9.7: atlas and axis cervical vertebrae.

Figure 9.8: Dorsal view of sacral vertebrae of vertebrates.

Bird Vertebrae
 

Possess atlas and axis 13-14 free cervicals, 4 fused thoracics, 13fused synsacrum, free caudals, pygostyle

Figure 9.9: Pigeon vertebral column.

Synsacrum
Fuses with pelvic bone  Reduction in bone mass


Figure 9.10: Pigeon skeleton: trunk, tail, and pectoral girdle.

Figure 9.11: Synsacrum and pelvic girdle left lateral (a) and ventral (b) views.

Mammal Vertebrae
 

  

most have 7 cervicals 12 thoracic and 5 lumbar compose dorsal vertebrae ancestral mammals possessed ~ 27 presacrals sacrum 2-5 fused vertebrae (ankylosed) 2caudals are variable


primates have 2-5 fused into coccyx 2-

Ribs
  


DogfishDogfish- develop dorsal ribs Most teleost- develop ventral ribs teleostTetrapodsTetrapods- have dorsal and ventral ribs
Dorsal ribs lost, enlargement of head of proximal ribs 2 portions articulate with vertebrae
 

TuberculumTuberculum- dorsal head CapitulumCapitulum- ventral head

Figure 9.12: Rib types - Dorsal and ventral ribs.

 

AgnathansAgnathans- no ribs AmphibiansAmphibians- ribs never reach sternum BirdsBirds- flat processes extending off ribs posteriorly (unicate processes)

Figure 9.13: Unicate processes of bird.

Figure 9.14: Vertebrae and ribs of alligator.

Sternum
  

Tetrapod structure AmphibiansAmphibians- poorly formed ReptilesReptiles- cartilaginous plates

 

Snakes, legless lizards, turtles have no sternum AlligatorAlligator- extends down belly
 

Ribs fused it sternum Gastralia

Figure 9.15: Ribs and gastralia of alligator.

BirdsBirds- unusual, keeled sternum in carinates MammalsMammals- well developed sternum

 

Rod shaped Segments: manubrium, sternebrae, xiphisternum and xiphoid process

Figure 9.16: Keeled sternum of bird.

Figure 9.17: Tetrapod sterna.

Heterotopic Bone


 

Develop by endochondral or intramembranous ossification In areas subject to continual stress Ex: os cordis, rostral bone, os penis, os clitoridis

 

Os cordis- interventricular septum cordisin deer heart Rostral bone- snout of pig boneOs penis (baculum)- embedded in (baculum)penis of lower primates Os clitoridis- embedded in clitoris clitoridisof otters Others include falciform, sesamoid, patella, pisiform

Figure 9.18: Heterotopic bones (book figure 7.11).

Skull and Visceral Skeleton



Two functionally independent cartilaginous components derived from replacement bone 1. Neurocranium 2. Splanchnocranium

Figure 9.19: Placoderm skull; neurocranium in blue; splanchnocranium in yellow.

Neurocranium
   

Protects brain and anterior part of spinal cord Sense organ capsules Cartilaginous brain case is embryonic adaptation Four ossification centers

Figure 9.20: Development of cartilaginous neurocranium.

Neurocranium Ossification Centers

   

Occiptial Region Sphenoid Region Ethmoid Region Otic Region

Figure 9.21: Neurocranium of human skull.

Occipital Region
Basioccipital, 2 exoccipitals, suproccipital  Forms single occipital bone in mammals


Sphenoid Region
Basisphenoid, orbitosphenoid, presphenoid, laterosphenoid  Fuse to form one sphenoid bone in mammals


Figure 9.22: Sphenoid bone.

Figure 9.24: Sphenoid bone. Figure 9.23: Human skull (a) cribriform plate (b) crista galli (c) frontal bone (d) sphenoid bone (e) temporal bone (f) sella turcica.

Ethmoid Region
Anterior to sphenoid  Cribriform plate, olfactory foramina, terminals, mesamoid  Fuse to form ethmoid in mammals


Otic Region


Three bones in tetrapods

Prootic  Opisthotic  Epiotic


Unite to form petrosal bone in birds and mammals



Forms temporal in mammals

Figure 9.25: Temporal bone of human skull. Figure 9.26: Multiple nature of temporal bone of mammals.

Figure 9.27: Intramembranous ossification of human skull. Embryonic, cartilaginous neurocranium is black. Neurocranial bones are red. Other is dermal mesenchyme.

Splanchnocranium
  

Visceral skeleton Visceral arches Branchial region

Figure 9.28: Splanchnocranium of human. Skeletal derivatives of 2nd through 5th pharyngeal arches.

1st visceral arch- mandibular archMeckels cartilage malleus  Pteryoquadrate incus



2nd visceral arch- hyoid archhyomandibula columella (stapes)  ceratohyal styloid process and anterior horn of hyoid  basihyal body of hyoid


Figure 9.29: Caudal end of Meckels cartilage and developing middle ear cavity.

VisceralVisceral-Cranial Derivatives
    

AlisphenoidAlisphenoid- part of sphenoid Malleus, incus- 1st arch incusStapesStapes- 2nd arch StyloidStyloid- 2nd arch HyoidHyoid- mainly basihyal

Figure 9.30: Derivatives of the human visceral skeleton (red).

Figure 9.31: Skeletal derivatives of pharyngeal arches.

Dermatocranium
  

Membrane bone, not replacement bone Dermal bones of skull Upper jaw and face, palates, mandible

Figure 9.32: Pattern that tetrapod dermatocrania may have evolved.

Dermatocranium (cont.)

Figure 9.33: Dog skull showing dermatocranium (pink), chondrocranium (blue), and splanchnocranium (yellow).

Figure 9.34: Endochondral bones (red) of mammalian skull.

Dermatocranial Elements
   

Nasal Squamosal Secondary palate- premaxilla, maxilla, jugal palatePrimary palate- vomer, palatine, pterygoid palate-

Neurocranial Elements
   

Cribriform Ethmoid Otic complex Temporal bone

Splanchnocranial Elements
 

Maleus, incus, stapes Styloid process- hyoid process-

Visceral Arches of Man

   

Styloid processes Body of hyoid Thyroid Cricoid

Middle Ear Bones

  

Hammer (malleus_ Anvil (incus) Stirrup (stapes) Not homologous to weberian ossicles in teleost fish


Modified transverse processes of anteriormost vertebrae in some fishes.

Appendicular Skeleton
   

Pectoral Girdle Pelvic Girdle Appendages Adaptations for Speed

Pectoral Girdle


2 sets of elements: cartilage or replacement bone and membrane bone Replacement bones


Coracoid, scapula, suprascapula Clavicle, cleithrum, supracleithrum

Figure 9.35: Pectoral girdle phylogenetic lines. Dermal bones are red. Replacement bones are black.

Membrane bones


Reduction in number of bones through evolution



SharkShark- only cartilagenous components AlligatorAlligator- retains only replacement bone elements, no dermal bone Mammals
 

(a)

Scapula of replacement bone Clavicle of membrane bone

(b) Figure 9.36: Pectoral girdles of (a) Polypterus and (b) shark.. Dermal bones are red. Replacement bones are black..

BirdsBirds- two clavicles fuse to form furcula (wishbone)

Pelvic Girdle
 

No dermal elements Three replacement bones



Ilium, ischium, pubis

Triradiate pelvic girdlegirdlealligator and dinosaur

Figure 9.37: Left halves of pelvic girdles showing parallel evolution.

Appendages
 

Single unit in both fore and hind limbs most medial Two units in fore and hind limb distal area

Figure 9.38: Dorsal view of left forelimb or forefin of Devonian tetrapods.

Figure 9.40: Left pectoral fin of Devonian fish [left] and forelimb of early tetrapod [right]. Figure 9.39: Cladogram of lobe-Fin fishes and amphibians.

  

Small set of bones at wrist and ankle Pentameristic pattern of phalanges Reduction in number and position of phalanges

Figure 9.41: Evolution of fins to limbs.

Adaptations for Speed



Plantigrade
Flat on the ground  Primates


Digitigrade
Elevated  Carnivores


Unguligrade
Reduction in digits  Two types

Figure 9.42: Plantigrade, digitigrade, and unguligrade feet. Ankle bones are black. Metatarsals are grey.

Unguligrade Adaptation
Reduction in digits


Perissodactyls
  

Odd toed Mesaxanic foot Weight on enlarged middle digit



Ex: horse

Artidodactyls
  

Even toed Paraxonic foot Weight equally distributed on 3rd and 4th digits


Ex: camel

Figure 9.43: Unguligrade adaptations in horse and camel. Bones lost are white.

Locomotion Without Limbs



Serpentine
Lateral undulation  Wave motion  Minimum 3 contact points

(a)

Rectilinear
Straight line  Scutes on belly lift  Costocutaneous muscles move the skin

(b)

(c)

Figure 9.44: Serpentine locomotion (a) and rectilinear locomotion (b & c).

Locomotion Without Limbs (cont.)



Sidewinding
Minimum 2 contact points  Adaptation in sandy habitats


Concertina
Minimum 2 contact points  Allows snake to move up gutter

(a) (b) Figure 9.45: Sidewinding locomotion (a) and concertina locomotion (b).

Literature Cited
Figure 9.1- http://www.brown.edu/Courses/BI0032/bone/axial2.htm 9.1Figure 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.8, 9.9, 9.10, 9.11, 9.12, 9.14, 9.16, 9.17, 9.18, 9.20, 9.21, 9.25, 9.26, 9.27, 9.28, 9.29, 9.30, 9.31, 9.32, 9.34, 9.35, 9.36, 9.37, 9.40, 9.42 & 9.43- Kent, George C. and Robert K. Carr. 9.43Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrates. 9th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2001. McGrawFigure 9.6- http://www.agrabilityproject.org/assistivetech/tips/tractorseat.cfm 9.6Figure 9.7- http://www.spineuniverse.com/displayarticle.php/article2245.html 9.7Figure 9.13- http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/zoolab/Table_of_Contents/Lab9.13- http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/zoolab/Table_of_Contents/Lab9b/Bird_Skeleton_1/Bird_Skeleton_1c/bird_skeleton_1c.htm Figure 9.15- http://www.auburn.edu/academic/classes/zy/0301/Topic8/Topic8.html 9.15Figure 9.19-Kardong, K. Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution. McGraw Hill, 2002. 9.19Figure 9.22- http://www.mlaphil.org/chronicle/20n3/fall2002.htm 9.22Figure 9.23- http://www.staneksoftware.com/anatomy_bowl_content/SkSkull1.htm 9.23Figure 9.24- http://www.upstate.edu/cdb/grossanat/hnsklatsb.shtml 9.24Figure 9.33- Kardong, K. Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution. McGraw Hill, 2002. 9.33Figure 9.38- http://cas.bellarmine.edu/tietjen/images/subphylum_vertefish.htm 9.38Figure 9.39- http://bss.sfsu.edu/holzman/courses/Fall%2003%20project/CAtigersalamander.htm 9.39Figure 9.41- http://pharyngula.org/~pzmyers/MyersLab/teaching/Bi104/l02/fins.html 9.41Figure 9.44- http://www.worldwidesnakes.com/ri-reptile-basic-anatomy-locomotion.php 9.44- http://www.worldwidesnakes.com/ri-reptile-basic-anatomyFigure 9.45 (a)- http://folio.photosource.com/1120 (a)Figure 9.45 (b)- http://voronoi.sbp.ri.cmu.edu/research/rsch_locomotion.html (b)-