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The class notes used in this course are based on two different sets of class notes provided by Dr. Jeremy Allnutt and Dr. James W. LaPean when teaching Satellite Communications courses. Material from Leila Ribeiro is also used. All material is used with the permission of the author.
Agenda
History Overview and Basic concepts of Satellite Communications Spectrum Allocation Satellite Systems Applications System Elements System Design Considerations 3 Current Developments and Future Trends
Propulsion
Rocket motors produce thrust in a process which can be explained by Newton's third law (for every action there is an equal but opposite reaction). In the case of rocket engines, the reactionary force is produced by the combustion of fuel in a combustion chamber. This force then acts upon the rocket nozzle, causing the reaction which propels the vehicle. Since rocket motors are designed to operate in space, they require an oxidizer in order for combustion to take place. This oxidizer is, in many cases, liquid oxygen. There are three different types of rocket engines: y 1. Solid propelled rockets y 2. Liquid propelled rockets y 3. Nuclear rockets The advantages and disadvantages of each type are shown below. Solid Fueled Rockets In solid fueled rockets, the fuel and oxidizer both in solid form and thoroughly mixed during manufacture. The section where the fuel is stored is also the combustion chamber. One end of the chamber is closed (the payload of the rocket would be attached to this end) and the other end of the chamber is a rocket nozzle. Advantages of solid fuel rockets include simplicity and reliability, since there are no moving parts and high propellant density, which results in a smaller sized rocket. Among the disadvantages are these: once you turn on a solid rocket motor, you can't shut it off. You have to wait for the fuel to run out. Also, the thrust of a solid fuel rocket decreases greatly during its burn time. Liquid Fueled Rockets In liquid fueled rockets the fuel and oxidizer are stored in liquid form and pumped into the combustion chamber. There are two types of liquid propellent rockets; bipropellant rockets, which have separate fuel and oxidizer, and mono-propellant rockets, which have their fuel and oxidizer combined into a single liquid. Liquid fueled rockets are superior to solid fuel rockets in many respects; they can be shut off and subsequently restarted, they generally have a higher exhaust velocity, which means lower burn times are required, and they can be throttled to produce more or less thrust, as needed. However, liquid fuel rockets are highly complex, and therefore have a lower rate of reliability. Nuclear Rockets Nuclear rockets work by routing hydrogen through a nuclear reactor. The reactor is at a high temperature, which causes the hydrogen fuel to expand as it leaves the nozzle, producing a high amount of thrust. Nuclear rockets do not need an oxidizer, and they require much less fuel per pound of payload than liquid or solid fuel rockets. This allows a vehicle using a nuclear rocket to be more versatile than one which uses chemical rockets. Disadvantages of nuclear rockets include radiation effects caused by the nuclear reactor, and the high weight of the engine assembly. Odysseus Recent studies have shown nuclear propulsion for Mars missions offers several major advantages over all-chemical propulsion systems. Therefore, a nuclear engine was selected for the Odysseus program. The Oddyseus II engine will produce 1,112,500 Newtons of thrust at a weight of 9100 kg. The engine will be approximately 3m in diameter and 6 meters long.
V2 Rocket
Sputnik - I
Explorer - I
ECHO I
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Telstar I
12
Intelsat I
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15
Iridium
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GEO
36,000 km
MEO LEO
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USEFUL ORBITS 2:
Low Earth Orbit (>250 km); T } 92 minutes Polar (Low Earth) Orbit; earth rotates about 23o each orbit; useful for surveillance Sun Synchronous Orbit(example, TirosN/NOAA satellites used for search and rescue operations) 8-hour and 12-hour orbits Molniya orbit (Highly Elliptical Orbit (HEO); T } 11h 38 min; highly eccentric orbit; inclination 63.4 degrees
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MOLNIYA VIEW OF THE EARTH (Apogee remains over the northern hemisphere)
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A Highly Elliptical Orbit (HEO) A satellite in HEO typically has a perigee at about 500 km above the surface of the Earth and an apogee as high as 50,000 km. The orbit is usually inclined at 63.4 deg to provide communications services to locations at high northern latitudes. This inclination value is selected to avoid rotation of the apses; thus, a line from the Earth's center to the apogee always intersects the Earth's surface at a latitude of 63.4 deg North. Orbit period varies from eight to 24 hours. Owing to the high eccentricity of the orbit, a satellite spends about two-thirds of the orbital period near apogee, during which time it appears to be almost stationary to an observer on the Earth (a phenomenon known as `apogee dwell'). During the brief time the satellite is below the local horizon, a hand-off to another satellite in the same orbit is required in order to avoid loss of communications. Free space loss and propagation delay for this type of orbit are comparable to that of geosynchronous satellites. However, due to the comparatively great movement of a satellite in HEO relative to an observer on the Earth, satellite systems using this type of orbit must cope with large Doppler shifts.
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A Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) By selecting a relatively short period (90 minutes), we have generated a satellite in low-Earth orbit (LEO). A typical LEO is elliptical or, more often, circular, with a height of less than 2000 km above the surface of the Earth. The orbit period at those altitudes ranges between 90 minutes and two hours. The radius of the footprint of a communications satellite in LEO ranges between 3000 and 4000 km. The maximum time during which a satellite in LEO is above the local horizon for an observer on the Earth is 20 minutes. A global communications system using this type of orbit requires a large number of satellites, in a number of different orbital planes. When a satellite serving a particular user moves below the local horizon, it must hand over its duties to a succeeding one in the same orbit or in an adjacent one. Due to the comparatively great movement of a satellite in LEO relative to an observer on the Earth, satellite systems using this type of orbit must cope with large Doppler shifts. Satellites in LEO are also affected by atmospheric drag that causes the orbit to gradually deteriorate. Examples of major LEO systems are GlobalstarTM (48+8 satellites in 8 orbital planes at 1400 km) and Iridium (66+6 satellites in 6 orbital planes at 780 km). There are also a number of small LEO systems, such as PoSat, built by SSTL in 1993 and launched into an 822 by 800 km orbit, inclined at 98.6 deg. 26
A Polar Orbit
The plane of a polar orbit is inclined at about 90 deg to the equatorial plane, intersecting the North and South poles. The orbit is fixed in space, and the Earth rotates underneath. Thus, in principle, the coverage of a single satellite in a polar orbit encompasses the entire globe, although there are long periods during which the satellite is out of view of a particular ground station. This gap in coverage may be acceptable for a store-and-forward communications system. Accessibility can, of course, be improved through the deployment of two or more satellites in different polar orbits. Most small LEO systems employ polar or near-polar orbits. An example is the COSPAS-SARSAT Maritime Search and Rescue system, which uses eight satellites in near polar orbits: four SARSAT satellites moving in 860 km orbits inclined at 99 deg (which makes them Sunsynchronous) and four COSPAS satellites moving in 1000 km orbits inclined at 82 deg.
A Sun-Synchronous Orbit
In a Sun-synchronous or helio-synchronous orbit, the angle between the orbital plane and Sun remains constant, resulting in consistent light conditions for the satellite. This can be achieved by careful selection of orbital altitude, eccentricity and inclination, producing a precession of the orbit (node rotation) of approximately 1 deg eastward each day, equal to the apparent motion of the Sun. This condition can be achieved only for a satellite in a retrograde orbit. A satellite in Sun-synchronous orbit crosses the equator and each latitude at the same time each day. This type of orbit is therefore advantageous for an Earth observation satellite, since it provides constant lighting conditions.
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Semimajor Axis
Half the distance between the two points in the orbit that are farthest apart
Apogee/Perigee Radius
Measured from the center of the Earth to the points of maximum and minimum radius in the orbit
Apogee/Perigee Altitude
Measured from the "surface" of the Earth (a theoretical sphere with a radius equal to the equatorial radius of the Earth) to the points of maximum and minimum radius in the orbit
Period
Mean Motion
The number of orbits per solar day (86,400 sec/24 hour), based on assumed two-body motion
Eccentricity
The shape of the ellipse comprising the orbit, ranging between a perfect circle (eccentricity = 0) and a parabola (eccentricity = 1)
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Inclination
The angle between the orbital plane and the Earth's equatorial plane (commonly used as a reference plane for Earth satellites)
The angle in the Earth's equatorial plane measured eastward from the vernal equinox to the ascending node of the orbit
Argument of Perigee
The angle, in the plane of the satellite's orbit, between the ascending node and the perigee of the orbit, measured in the direction of the satellite's motion
The ascending node (referenced in three of the above definitions) is the point in the satellite's orbit where it crosses the Earth's equatorial plane going from south to north.
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Satellite Location parameters To specify the satellite's location within its orbit at epoch.
Parameter
Definition
True Anomaly
The angle from the eccentricity vector (points toward perigee) to the satellite position vector, measured in the direction of satellite motion and in the orbit plane.
Mean Anomaly
The angle from the eccentricity vector to a position vector where the satellite would be if it were always moving at its angular rate.
Eccentric Anomaly
An angle measured with an origin at the center of an ellipse from the direction of perigee to a point on a circumscribing circle from which a line perpendicular to the semimajor axis intersects the position of the satellite on the ellipse.
Argument of Latitude
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25.0
20.0
Hours
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 Altitude [km] 25000 30000 35000 40000
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200.0
Delay [ms]
150.0
100.0
50.0
0.0 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 Altitude [km] 25000 30000 35000 40000
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v (velocity) F2 F1
(Gravitational Force) (Inertial-Centrifugal Force)
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Spectrum Allocation
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Microwave Frequencies
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Spectrum Regulation
International Telecommunication Union (ITU): Members from practically all countries around the world. Allocates frequency bands for different purposes and distribute them around the planet. Creates rules to limit RF Interference (RFI) between countries that reuse same RF bands. Mediates disputes and creates rules to deal with harmful interference when it occurs. Meets bi-annually with its members, to review rules and allocations: World Radio Communication Conference (WRC). There are also the Regional Radio Communication Conferences (RCC), which happen less often.
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HF
10
VHF
100
UHF
1
L S
SHF C X Ku Ka V Q
10 100
MHz
GHz
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Atmospheric attenuation effects for Space-to-Earth as a function of frequency (clear air conditions). (a) Oxygen; (b) Water vapor. [Source: ITU 1988]
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750 MHz
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50
Mobile Services
Motient (former American Mobile Satellite), INMARSAT, etc.
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System Elements
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Earth Stations
Ground Segment
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Space Segment
Satellite Launching Phase Transfer Orbit Phase Deployment Operation
TT&C - Tracking Telemetry and Command Station:
Establishes a control and monitoring link with satellite. Tracks orbit distortions and allows correction planning. Distortions caused by irregular gravitational forces from non-spherical Earth and due to the influence of Sun and Moon forces.
Provides link signal monitoring for Link Maintenance and Interference monitoring.
Retirement Phase
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Three-Axis Stabilization
Bias momentum type (ex., INTELSAT V) Zero momentum type (ex., Yuri)
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Satellite Subsystems
Communications
Antennas Transponders
Earth Station = Satellite Communication Station (air, ground or sea, fixed or mobile).
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Basic Principles
Satellite
Tx
Source Information
Output Information
Rx
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Signals
Signals:
Carried by wires as voltage or current Transmitted through space as electromagnetic waves. Analog:
Voltage or Current proportional to signal; e.g., Telephone.
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Separating Signals
Up
: r
f f t Upli li
:
c i isi pl i .
: i
Up, t
i isi
,t
pl
Up, t
.
, .
l riz ti
RH li r pol riz tion H circ l r pol riz tions
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Separating Signals
(so that many transmitters can use the same transponder simultaneously)
nnels (
ltiple ccess):
: requency i ision ultiple ccess; ssi ns each trans itter its own carrier frequency
f User ; f User ; f User ,
: ode i ision ultiple ccess; each trans itter trans its si ultaneously and at the same frequency and each transmission is modulated y its own pseudo randomly coded it stream
Code User ; Code User ; Code User
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RECEIVER
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Homework #1
Answer the questions below for Dish Networks direct-to-home digital television broadcasting. Reference the text pages 7, 443, 445 and Dish Networks Web site, and section 11.2 page 441. 1) How many satellites does Dish Network have in the sky? Name them? 2) How many transponders are on each of these satellites? What frequency band is used? 3) What orbit are these satellites in (LEO, MEO, GEO)? 4) Why are two heads used on the Dish Network antenna (text page 445)? 5) On what date was Echostar I launched? Echostar V? 6) Are these satellites spin or three axis stabilized? See page 443 7) Go to the Website and download the azimuth and elevation application( products installation) and follow the directions to aim the dish antenna to receive a signal for the zip code where you live. State the azimuth, elevation and skew angles and longitude for each satellite. 8) See page 443. If the frequency band were C rather than Ku, how would this affect the size of the receive antenna you would need on your rooftop? 9) What is a transponder? Why does a satellite have multiple transponders and not just one? 10) Extra credit Go to the Air & Space Museum and view Explorer I, Sputnik I, the V2 rocket, TIROS II, TIROS-N and ITOS. Briefly describe the purpose of each.
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