Social Psychology

Behaviors and Attitudes- Chapter 4

What is an Attitude?
Feelings toward some object, person, or idea. Reflect underlying differences in the extent to which we feel positive or negative (or both) about an attitude object. Thus, attitudes reflect a positive, negative, or mixed evaluation of a person, object, or idea expressed at some level of intensity.

Conceptualizing Attitudes: 4 Possible Reactions to Attitude Objects

Cacciopo, et al. 1997

How Attitudes Are Measured: Self-Report Measures

Attitude Scale: A multiple-item questionnaire designed to measure a persons attitude toward some object.
e.g., Likert Scale

Bogus Pipeline: A phony lie-detector device that is sometimes used to get respondents to give truthful answers to sensitive questions.
Sigall & Page (1971)- Acknowledging Prejudice

How Attitudes Are Measured: Covert Measures

Observable behavior Facial Electromyograph (EMG): An electronic instrument that records facial muscle activity associated with emotions and attitudes. Implicit attitudes (IAT)

The Facial EMG: A Covert Measure of Attitudes?

From Cacioppo, J.T., and Petty, R.E. (1981). Electromyograms as measures of extent and affectivity of information processing. American Psychologist, 36, 441-456. Copyright 1981 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission.

How Attitudes Are Measured: The Implicit Association Test (IAT)

Based on notion that we have implicit attitudes (nonconscious attitudes that we may be unaware of). Implicit Association Test (IAT): Measures the speed with which one responds to pairings of concepts (Black-Bad/White-Good vs. Black-Good/White-Bad).
Average correlation between IAT scores and explicit selfreported attitudes r = .24 (Hoffman, et al., 2005) IAT website: www.yale.edu/implicit, dates back to 1998, over 2.5 million tests administered. Studies have yielded an average implicit preference for (1) self over other, (2) white over black, (3) young over old, (4) and the stereotype that links males with careers and females with family (Greenwald et al., 2003)

The Link Between Attitudes and Behavior: Consistency or Inconsistency?

Is the assumption that attitudes influence behavior a valid one? Historically, social psychology wrestled with the paradox that peoples attitudes did not tend to accurately predict their behaviors.
LaPieres (1934) provocative but flawed study. Wickers (1969) conclusion that attitudes and behavior are only weakly correlated. The Situationist Challenge

Attitudes and Behavioral Links

The Link Between Attitudes & Behavior: Putting Attitudes in Context

Why do such disparities exist between peoples attitudes and their behaviors? Across > 100 studies, Ajzen and Fishbeins (1977) found that attitudes correlate with behavior only when attitude measures closely match the behavior in question. General vs. Specific attitudes/behaviors- General attitudes tend to poorly predict specific behaviors, but that specific attitudes predict well specific behaviors
Davidson & Jaccard (1979): Predicting birth control usage within the next 2 yrs was better predicted by specific attitudes (How do you feel about using birth control pills during the next 2 yrs.) rather than general ones (How do you feel about birth control?).

When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior?

Minimizing social influences on expressed attitudes Minimizing other specific situational influences on behavior (The principle of aggregation) Examining attitudes specific to the behavior When attitudes are potent or strong (i.e., salient)

Prettyman/ PhotoEdit

Strength of the Attitude

Why do some attitudes have more influence on behavior?
Depends on attitudes importance or strength.

Why are some attitudes stronger than others?

Because of our genetic make-up?

Genetic Influences on Attitudes (Olson et al., 2001., N = 672)

Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein, 1980) & The Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991)
Proposes that attitudes influence our behavior through a rational process of deliberate decision making.
The decision to or not to enact a particular behavior is understood in terms of our behavioral intentions. Behavioral intentions are often strong predictors of how we act in a given situation (Ajzen, 1987).

Several factors influence ones behavioral intentions (1) attitudes toward a specific behavior (positive or negative evaluations of performing the act/whether it will yield positive or negative consequences) (2) subjective norms (perceptions of others approval or disapproval of the act) (3) perceived control (appraisals of ones ability to perform the act)

Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991)

Reprinted from Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Vol. 50, Professor Ajzen, pp. 179-211. Copyright (c) 1991, with permission from Elsevier.

Theory of Planned Behavior Application: Does attitudes about Ecstasy predict its usage?
(Orbell, Blair, Sherlock, & Conner, 2001) Young people were approached in various locations and asked to complete a questionnaire designed to assess their
Attitudes Toward Ecstasy (e.g., is the drug enjoyable-unenjoyable, pleasant-unpleasant, beneficial-harmful, etc.) Subjective Norms (whether their friends would approve of their using Ecstasy) Perceived Control (1. whether they could obtain it, 2. whether they could resist taking it if they had it) Behavioral Intention (whether they planned on using Ecstasy within the next 2 months)

Intentions To and Actual Ecstasy Use were significantly predicted by a positive attitude toward Ecstasy, seeing its use as normatively accepted by ones peers, and perceived control over using it. Intentions to use ecstasy significantly predicted Actual ecstasy use

The Link Between Behaviors and Attitudes (B Self-Persuasion Effects

Do changes in our behaviors produce changes in attitude? Various evidence supports the contention that our behaviors come to alter our attitudes.
Role Playing (Zimbardo, 1971) The foot-in-the-door phenomena (Cialdini)

A)

Several theories suggest that our behaviors can determine our attitudes
Cognitive Dissonance Theory Self-Perception Theory Self-Affirmation Theory

Does Behavior Determine Attitudes?

Role playing (Zimbardo, 1971)

Phil Zimbardo

Cognitive Dissonance Theory:

(Leon Festinger (1957)

We are motivated by a desire for cognitive consistency We experience psychological tension- (i.e., a state of negative arousal, dissonance) when we are aware of inconsistencies among our attitudes, cognitions, and behaviors.
e.g., saying things you dont believe you look great in that outfit, deciding among two attractive options (who to date, what to major in)

We become highly motivated to reduce dissonance and often do so by adjusting their thinking which often often involves irrational or sometimes maladaptive behavior.

Ways to Reduce Dissonance: Embracing your chocolate mousse option despite that Youre Dieting

A Dissonance Classic: Festinger & Carlsmiths (1959) Boring Task Study Would a counterattitudinal action produce changes in how participants really feel? Would being paid $1 or $20 to tell others that a boring task was actually interesting alter how enjoyable the participants found the boring task?

A Dissonance Classic: Festinger & Carlsmiths (1959) Boring Task Study

From "Cognitive Consequences of Forced Compliance," by L. Festinger and J.M. Carlsmith (1959), Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58, 203.210. Reprinted with permission.

Dissonance & Insufficient Justification

Festinger & Carlsmiths study:

Participants experienced cognitive dissonance because they had insufficient justification for lying (i.e., saying the study was exciting when it was actually boring). Contributions of Festinger & Carlsmiths study:
Showed the phenomenon of self-persuasion. Contradicted the behaviorists widely accepted belief that big rewards produce greater change.

Why Do Actions Affect Attitudes? A Cognitive Dissonance Theory Perspective

Insufficient Justification (e.g., Festinger & Carlsmith Study)
Dissonance produced from counterattitudinal actions.

Post Decisional Self-Justification Effects

Dissonance produced from making decisions results in justifying our behaviors. e.g., Knox & Inkster (1968)- In contrast to those bettors who were still waiting in line to bet, racetrack bettors who had just finished placing their bets were more prone to believe that their horse would win.

Justifying Difficult Decisions: When Good Choices Get Even Better

Whenever we make difficult decisions, we feel dissonance. We rationalize the correctness of our decision by exaggerating:
The positive features of the chosen alternative The negative features of the unchosen alternative.

Other Applications: Justifying Attitude-Discrepant Behavior Mild punishment is insufficient deterrence for attitude-discrepant nonbehavior.
The less severe the threatened punishment, the greater the attitude change produced.

Alternative Routes to Self-Persuasion

Self-Perception Theory (Bem, 1972): Self-persuasion through observation of own behavior (i.e., inferring our attitudes based on attribution processes).
Especially prone to occur when our attitudes are weak or ambiguous.

Impression Management Theory: What matters is not a motive to be consistent but rather a motive to appear consistent to others (i.e., self-presentation concerns to appear socially desirable). Self-Affirmation Theory: Dissonance situations create a threat to the self which can be resolved by affirming or revalidating ones integrity.
The affirmation can occur in a non-dissonance related area!!!

Comparison of Cognitive Dissonance & Self-Perception Theories

Applying Self-Perception Theory: Overjustification Effects and Intrinsic Motivation

Necessary Conditions for the Arousal and Reduction of Dissonance

Applying Self-Affirmation Theory

(Galinsky, et al., 2000)
When would dissonant speeches (advocating bans on popular campus
traditions) produce the strongest endorsement for the ban? Self-Affirmation Conditions: Participants given a chance to express their values after giving the speech.

Self-Concept Change Study (Tice, 1992)

Would participants sit closer or further away from the confederate after portraying themselves as introverted or extraverted in either a private or public setting?
170 165 160 155 150 145 140 135 130 Introvert Extravert Private Public

Critically Comparing the Theories of Self-Persuasion