PHYSICS: AM 1102 CHAPTER 2- MATTER

By Nurulain Bte Samat 0169219130 (ext:407) Room 216

2.1 METTER
Outline: Nature of Matter Structure of Atoms Chemical elements and Compounds States of Matter Changes Between States Stress, Strain & Elasticity.
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2.1 Nature of Metter

Matter anything that occupies space & have mass, made of tiny particles. It includes everything around us: the food we eat, the water we drink, the air we breathe,the aircraft we fly as well as the atmosphere. Conservation of Matter Matter cannot be created or destroyed, but is able to change its form with the release of energy.

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2.2 Structure of Atom All matter or material is made up from

elementary building blocks that we know as atoms or molecules. The atoms may be sub-divided into protons, neutrons and electrons. Atoms are the smallest particles of matter that can take part in chemical reaction.
Consists of a core (nucleus) with electron(s) traveling around it in elliptical orbit.
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 Nucleus - consists of :
proton (p) : positive charge in nucleus neutron (n) : no charge, same mass with proton, same kind of atoms may contain different amount of neutrons p isotopes

Atomic mass = sum of the p & n in nucleus , Atomic number = number of proton in nucleus

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The following table shows the relative masses and electric charges of protons, neutrons and electrons:

Relative Mass Relative Charge Protons Neutrons Electrons 1 1 1/1847 of mass proton +1 0 -1

Both proton and neutron have nearly the same mass: 1.67x 10-27Kg. The charge on a single electron is very small -19 1.6 x 10 coulombs

Isotopes: Although all atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, they can have a different number of neutrons. Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes.

electrons:
Electrons carry a negative charge of the same magnitude as the Proton. Electrons are arranged in energy levels or shells around the nucleus. Electrons in the energy shells closest to the nucleus are held tightly by electrostatic attraction. In the outermost shells they are held less tightly.

Energy level First Second Third Fourth 1 2 3 4

n K L M N

Letter

Max number of e = (2n2) 2 8 18 32

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2.3 Chemical Element & Compound

Elements - Elements are substances that are made up of only one or more atoms of the same type. The symbols shown on the periodic table represent the known elements. Examples - gold, silver, carbon, oxygen and hydrogen.
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 An element can be either a conductor, insulator or semiconductor, depending on the valence electrons. Conductors : atoms with fewer than half of the valance electron easier to give up electron Insulators : atoms with more than half of the valance electron Semiconductor : the atoms have exactly half of their valance electron
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Valence electrons. 1.related to the ability of an atom to enter into chemical combination with other element. 2.electrons on the outer most orbit/shell (valance orbit). 3.if an atom has a valence of zero, these are all example of inert or noble element. 4.the valence of an element is identified by a column in which it sits within the periodic table

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Molecule: When two or more atoms become bound together. Eg; hydrogen, H2 . A molecule that consists of single element is called monoatomic molecule Chemical compound When 2 or more different atoms are combined made up of different type of atom. e.g. H2O , HCl

 Chemical compound can be:

Covalent Compound : bonds are formed via sharing of electron Ionic Compound : valance electron moves from one atom to outer shell of another atom
Atoms will become charged particles ions +ve ions : cations lost 1 or more electrons -ve ions : anions gain 1 or more electrons
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Periodic Table

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There are 92 naturally occurring elements. The modern Periodic Table is arranged according to atomic number(proton). The horizontal rows of elements on the periodic table are called periods. The vertical columns are called groups or families. Normally the elements in each column have similar properties or behavior.

"X" represents the atom's elemental symbol. The mass number, which is given the symbol Z" The atomic number is given the symbol A".

2.4 State of Metter

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 Matter is generally considered to exist in solid, liquid and gaseous form. The existence of the three states of matter is due to a struggle between the inter atomic binding forces and the motion these atoms have because of their internal energy.

Solid
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Liquid

Gas
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2.4.1 Solid Definite volume & definite shape Atoms/molecules are close together, vibrate about fixed positions, locked into a geometrically ordered array. With increase in temperature, the particles vibrate faster and more strongly. Difficult to compress.

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 Can be classified as crystalline (C), quasicrystalline (QC) or amorphous (A).

C - atoms have an ordered structure, QC - orderly & uniform arrangement of atom but not repeating, A - atoms arranged randomly.

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2.4.2 Liquid Has fixed volume but shape is according to container. Molecules are slightly farther apart but close enough together. Intermolecular forces are weaker than in a solid, molecules can slide freely over one another take shape of the container

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 Cohesion between molecules forms a force surface tension over the top of the liquid, prevents it from expanding and completely filling the container. Hardly to be compressed - has the same property with solid that when an attempt is made to compress them, strong repulsive atomic force act internally to resist compression.

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1.3.3 Gas no fixed volume, expand to fill whatever space they can occupy, no fixed surface. atoms/molecules move independently (Brownian motion), Freely moving around in the container Will collide with each other and the walls of the container.

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 Gases move from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration (or higher pressure to lower pressure).

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2.5 Phase Transition

Changes between state of a single component can happened due to effects of temperature & pressure. s p l : melting l p s : freezing l p g : boiling/ evaporation g p l : condensation s p g : sublimation g p s : deposition
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1.6.1 Stress
If a solid, subjected to an external force, a resisting force is set up within the material and is set to be it state of stress. Stress - internal distribution of force per unit area that balances & reacts to external loads applied to a body.
(2.1)

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 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

There are five different types of stress in mechanical bodies: Tension Compression Torsion Bending Shear
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 Tension reaction force applied by stretching on the objects. The direction of the force of tension is parallel and away from the object exerting the stretching force. Tension/ tensile is set up by forces tending to pull material apart. Component that is design to carry tension is known as ties. Compression - applied to materials resulting in their compaction (subjected to compressive stress). Produce by forces tending to crush the material. Component that is design to carry compressive load is known as struts.
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 Torsion - twisting or wrenching of a body by a lateral force tending to turn one end or part of it about a longitudinal axis, while the other is held fast or turned in the opposite direction. Bending behavior of a structural material that being compressed and stretched at the same time. Shear combines tension and compression which tries to slide an object apart. It tends to make one part of the material slide over the other.
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1. Tension stress
F

2. Compression stress
F

3. Torsion stress F

4. Bending stress
F F
Compression

5. Shear stress F F F
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Tension / stretching

Bending stress on aircraft

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1.6.2 Strain Strain - geometrical expansion of deformation caused by the action of stress on a physical body.

strain =

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 Note that the deformation of tensile strain will be an extension and for compressive strain will be a reduction. Key points: Since strain is ratio of dimensions, it has no unit

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Hooke's Law
States: within the elastic limit of material the change in shape is directly proportional to the applied force producing it. A good example of Hooke's Law is a spring. Where, an increase in weight will cause a corresponding extension

Modulus
Modulus of Elasticity Ratio of stress & strain is a constant for a given materials within the proportionality range. In another word is a measure of the stiffness of a material Also called Young Modulus.

(2.3) Unit: Nm-2 = Pa

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Example 1 A force of 20N is applied to an object of 3m2 Find the stress that the objects experiencing Example 2 An object is experiencing a force which resulted to the extension of 0.5m from its original length of 7m. Calculate the strain the objects experiencing

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Modulus of Rigidity The relationship between shear stress and shear strain is known as the modulus of rigidity. G= / Bulk modulus. If a body of volume v is subject to an increase of external pressure which changes it volume by dp the deformation is change in volume without change in shape.

Change in volume = (V

(F

Surface area = A

(F

(F

Original volume = V
(F

Possessed by solids, liquids & gas

Bulk Stress ulk Modulus, K ! Bulk Strain

When F is +ve, V is -ve, minus sign is included to make K a +ve constant. Bulk stress = Increased force per unit are

= ( F/A Bulk strain = change in volume/original volume = (V/V

( / (P K ! ! (V / V (V /

1.7 Mechanical Properties

Ductility - Able to be permanently stretched. eg: aluminium, copper Brittleness tendency to break easily or suddenly. Eg: cast iron, glass Toughness opposite of brittleness, the ability to withstand impact loads. Eg: some plastics or rubber.

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 Strength the ability of a material to resist applied force. Or applied force the material can withstand prior to fracture.measure by yeild stress or proof stress. Stiffness (elastic modulus)resistance of a material to deformation/ change of shape or size by an applied force. If specific stiffness- defined as ratio of it stiffness to that of it density. Malleability the ability of being extended, shaped, or otherwise deformed without cracking (hammer or roll)
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 Hardness - high resistance to various kinds of shape change when force is applied (resist scratching/ indentation by other materials) Elasticity - deformed materials under stress that can return to its original size/ shape when the stress is removed. Plasticity - deformed materials under stress that do not have the tendency to return to its original size / shape when the load is removed.
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Exercise Questions
1. Calculate the stress experienced by a metal that have the cross section of 10m2 that is being compress by a 1000N force. 2. An aluminium rod initially was 1200m in length. Due to an applied force, the aluminium rod was stretched by 0.3cm. Calculate the strain thats the rod is experiencing. 3. A steel wire of length 0.6m and cross-sectional area 1.5 x 10-6m2 supports a weight of 250N. Calculate the extension of the wire. (Esteel = 2.0 x 1011Pa).

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4. If the normal strain experienced by a rod in compression is 5.0 x 10-4 and its original length is 40cm, whats its final length? 5. A man leans down on a cane with a vertical axial force of 100N. The narrowest part of the cane has a cross sectional area of 1.0cm2. What is the maximum compressive stress in the cane?

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A steel wire, AB of length 0.6m and cross-sectional area 1.5 x 10-6m2 is attached at B to a copper wire, BG of length 0.39m and cross-sectional area 3.0 x 106m2. The combination is suspended vertically from a fixed point at A, & supports a weight of 250N at C. Find the extension of each section of the wire. (Esteel = 2.0 x 1011Pa, Ecopper = 1.3 x 1011Pa)