Mechanical Sensors

Mechanical Sensors
Class of sensors to measure mechanical phenomena For example
Displacement, location, position sensors Strain sensors Motion sensors Pressure sensors Flow sensors

Displacement, location, position sensors

In industrial process, it is sometimes required to measure position
location of object on conveyor system orientation of steel plates in a rolling mill liquid or solid level

Potentiometer sensors
Potentiometer consists of wire wound around a rod with fixed resistor R Movement of wiper change the resistance of the potentiometer

Example A potentiometric displacement sensor is to be used to measure work-piece motion from 0 to 10 cm. The resistance changes linearly over this range from 0 to 1 k;. Develop signal conditioning to provide a linear, 0- to 10- V output

Capacitive and Inductive Sensors

The displacement measurement due to the change in capacitance or inductance. Capacitive:
A C ! KI 0 d K ! the dielectric constant I 0 ! permittivity A ! plate area d ! plate separation

 There are 3 ways to change capacity

variation of plate separation variation of plate area variation of dielectric constant

 Inductive
a motion of permeable core changes the inductance An active electronic circuit sensitive to inductance can be used to detect the change in inductance

Variable Reluctance Sensor

A motion of core varies the magnetic flux coupling between the two coils, rather than changing an individual inductance. Used to measure translation and rotational motion. Most common configuration is called linear variable differential transformer (LVDT).

eind

dJ !N dt

LVDT
LVDT consists of 3 coils:
The primary is connected to AC source, thus inducing ac voltage in coils 2 and 3.

Coil 2 and 3 are connected in series with opposition direction:

when core is in middle, zero voltage output. when core is moved to one side, the net voltage will increase.

 The circuit for LVDT is shown below

Level Sensors
Level sensors measure the level of solid and liquid. Example:
Mechanical e.g. float riding up and down. Electrical e.g. concentric cylinders in liquid tank. Ultrasonic

Example
The level of ethyl alcohol is to be measured from 0 to 5 m using a capacitive system. The following specifications define the system: for ethyl alcohol: K = 26 (for air, K = 1) cylinder separation: d = 0.5 cm plate area: A = 2TRL where R = 5.75 cm = average radius L = distance along cylinder axis Find the range of capacity variation as the alcohol level varies from 0 to 5 m.

Strain Sensors
The sensor to measure the deformation of solid object due to stress Stress can be categorized in 3 types
Tensile stress Compressional stress Shear stress

F tensile stress ! A

F compressional stress ! A

F shear stress ! A

Strain
Strain is defined as the fractional change in length of the sample due to stress
(l tensile strain ! l (l compressional strain ! l

(x shear strain ! l

Stress-Strain Curve
In linear region, the slope is constant which is called modulus of elasticity, Youngs Modulus
stress F / A E! ! strain (l / l

Modulus of Elasticity
Material Aluminum Copper Steel Polyethylene Modulus (N/m2) 6.89x1010 11.73x1010 20.70x1010 3.45x108

Example Find the strain that results from a tensile force of 1000 N applied to a 10 m aluminum beam having a 4x10-4 m2 crosssectional area

Strain Gauge Principles

The resistance of sample material is
l0 R0 ! V A0

After the application of stress

l0  (l R!V A0  (A

The change in resistance due to stress is

(l (R ; 2 R0 l0

Example Find the approximate change in a metal wire of resistance 120 ; that results from a strain of 1000 Qm/m

Measurement Principles
The strain gauge (SG) is glued to the element whose strain is to be measured When stress is applied, the element and the SG is deformed at the same manner

Metal Strain Gauges

The device used to measured strain Gauge factor is defined as
(R / R GF ! strain

Indicates how easy the strain can be measured Large GF means large change in resistance for a given strain

Construction
Wire or foil Design to make it long in order to give large resistance change Sufficiently fine, not to resist the deformation Unidirectional Nominal value is 60, 120, 240, 350, 500 and 1000 ;

Signal Conditioning
The bridge circuit is used to detect the change in resistance of the SG

 The resistor value is set equal to nominal resistance of unstrained SG

R1 ! R2 ! RD ! R

The resistance of active SG is

(R RA ! R 1  R

The offset voltage is then

RD RA (V ! Vs  RD  R1 RA  R2

 Finally,
Vs (R (V }  4 R

or
Vs (l (V !  GF 4 l

Example A strain gauge with GF = 2.03 and R = 350 ; is used in the bridge. The bridge resistors are R1 = R2 = 350 ; and the dummy gauge has R = 350 ;. If a tensile strain of 1450 Qm/m is applied, find the bridge offset voltage if Vs = 10.0 V. Find the relation between bridge off-null voltage and strain. How much voltage results from a strain of 1 micro

Motion Sensors
Motion sensors are designed to measure the rate of change of position, location, or displacement The primary form of motion sensor is the accelerometer The speed, and position can be found from integration
t

v(t ) ! v(0)  a(t ) dt

0 t

x(t ) ! x(0)  v(t ) dt

0

Principle of Accelerometer
In industrial application, the design of accelerometer is based on Newtons Law and Hookes Law of Spring

k ! spring constant in N/m ma ! k (x (x ! spring extension in m m ! mass in kg a ! acceleration in m/s2

Natural Frequency
A spring and attached mass always exhibits oscillations at some characteristic natural frequency. This natural frequency is given by
1 fN ! 2T k m

f N ! natural frequency in Hz k ! spring constant in /m m ! seismic mass in kg

Damping
The friction that eventually brings the mass to rest is defined by a damping coefficient , which has the units of s-1
X T (t ) ! X o e-E t sin(2T f t )
T

(t ) ! transient mass position

o

! peak position, initially

E ! damping coefficient f N ! natural frequency

 If the spring-mass system is exposed to a vibration, then the resultant acceleration of the base is given by
a (t ) ! [ 2 x0 sin [t

Example An accelerometer has a seismic mass of 0.05 kg and a spring constant of 3.0x103 N/m. Maximum mass displacement is 0.02 m. Calculate (a) the maximum measurable acceleration in g, and (b) the natural frequency

Assignment # 2
Problems 5.1, 5.3, 5.6, 5.10, 5.12, 5.13 Describe the working principle and technical specifications of Position and Azimuth Determination System (PADS). Also name two other compatible systems. Important Note: Assignment must be hand written and is due on 11th August 2011.

Type of Accelerometers
Potentiometer LVDT Variable Reluctance Piezoelectric

Potentiometer
Attaching the spring mass to the wiper arm of a potentiometer The displacement is converted to resistance

LVDT
In these instruments, the LVDT core itself is the seismic mass. Displacements of the core are converted directly into a linearly proportional ac voltage.

Variable Reluctance
The test mass is usually a permanent magnet. The measurement is made from the voltage induced in a surrounding coil as the magnetic mass moves under the influence of an acceleration.

Piezoelectric
The piezoelectric accelerometer is based on a property exhibited by certain crystals where a voltage is generated across the crystal when stressed.

Pressure Sensor
Pressure sensor is used to measure the pressure of fluid (liquid and gas) in industrial application.

Pressure Principles
Pressure is force per area that fluid exerts on its surroundings

Static Pressure
The fluid is not moving

Dynamic Pressure
The fluid is moving

 Units for Pressure

SI unit: N/m2 (Pa) English unit: lb/in2 (psi) Atmosphere unit (1 atm = 14.7 psi = 101.325 kPa )

Gauge pressure
Describe a pressure in a relative sense, compared to atmospheric pressure
pg ! pabs  pat

 Head Pressure
Used to describe pressure for liquid in tank or pipe The pressure that is produced by the weight of liquid above that measured point
p ! V gh

Example A tank holds water with a depth of 7.0 ft. What is the pressure at the tank bottom in psi and Pa (density = 103 kg/m3)

Pressure Sensors (p > 1 atm)

A device measures pressure more than 1 atm Normally, convert pressure into physical displacement which is then converted to electrical signal

Diaphragm
A thin, flexible piece of metal as shown in the picture

If a pressure p1 exists on one side, p2 on the other side, the net force is then
F !  p2  p1 A

Bellows
A bellows is a device for delivering pressurized air in a controlled quantity to a controlled location. Basically, a bellows is a deformable container which has an outlet nozzle. When the volume of the bellows is decreased, the air escapes through the outlet. A bellows typically has a separate inlet, and valves or flaps to ensure that air enters only through the inlet and exits only through the outlet.

Bellows

Convert pressure into physical displacement The displacement is converted to voltage using LVDT

Bourdon Tube
A hard metal tube is flattened and one end is closed The other end is attached to header by which pressure is introduced

Electronic conversions
Convert mechanical displacement to electrical signal by mechanical linkage
Connect to potentiometer Connect to strain gauge Connect to LVDT

Solid State Pressure Sensor

Integrated circuit sensor Range from 0 to 100 kPa (0 to 14.7 psi) The silicon wafer acts like a diaphragm that deflects in response to a pressure difference

Pressure Sensors (p < 1 atm)

Measurement of pressure less than 1 atm are done using purely electronic method The device is based on the rate at which heat is conducted and radiated away from the heated filament Heat loss is proportional to number of gas molecule per unit volume (Pressure)

 Pirani Gauge
Determine the filament temperature thought a measurement of filament resistance Pirani gauge is used with bridge

High pressure causes gas molecules to collide with filament and gas molecule absorb energy from the filament, resulting in cooling of the filament

 Ionization Gauge Use to measure a very low pressures about 10-3 to 10-13 atm A regulated electron current (typically 10 mA) is emitted from a heated filament. The electrons are attracted to the helical grid by a dc +150 V potential of about +150 volts Some electrons collide with gas -30 V molecules in the gauge envelope causing a fraction of them to be ionized The gas ions are attracted to the central ion collector wire by the negative voltage on the collector (typically a minus 30 volts). Ion currents are on the order of 1 mA/Pa. This current is amplified and displayed by a high gain differential amplifier

Quiz # 1
Q1. A sensor resistance changes linearly from 100 to 180 ; as temperature changes from 20r to 120rC. Find a linear equation relating resistance and temperature.

Quiz # 1
Q1. A level sensor inputs a range from 4 to 9 ft and outputs a pressure range from 3 to 15 psi. Find a linear equation between level and pressure. What pressure relates to the level of 8 ft? (6) Q2. What is the difference between material and recipe standards? Give one example of each. (4)