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LEARNING IN ORGANIZATIONS
Learning in Organizations
Definition: A relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from practice or experience.
Two types of learning: Operant conditioning Social learning
Operant Conditioning
Learning that takes place when the learner recognizes the connection between a behavior and its consequences.
Individuals learn to operate on their environment, to behave in certain ways to achieve desirable consequences or avoid undesirable consequences.
Copyright 2002 Prentice-Hall
Reinforcement
Reinforcement: Increasing the probability that a desired behavior will occur again in the future by applying consequences that depend on the behavior in question. Positive Reinforcement: The administration of positive consequences to workers who perform desired behaviors.
Pay, promotions, interesting work, praise, awards
Negative Reinforcement: The removal of negative consequences when workers perform desired behaviors.
Nagging, complaining
Copyright 2002 Prentice-Hall
Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous Reinforcement: Occurs after every occurrence of a behavior. Partial Reinforcement: Occurs only a portion of the time that behavior occurs. Differences:
Continuous reinforcement can result in faster learning of desired behaviors. Behaviors learned using partial reinforcement are likely to last longer.
Copyright 2002 Prentice-Hall
Reinforcement Schedules
Fixed-Interval Schedule: The period of time between the occurrence of each instance of reinforcement is fixed or set. Variable-Interval Schedule: The amount of time between reinforcements varies around a constant average. Fixed-Ratio Schedule: A certain number of desired behaviors must occur before reinforcement is provided. Variable-Ratio Schedule: The number of desired behaviors that must occur before reinforcement varies around a constant average.
Copyright 2002 Prentice-Hall
Because job performance is likely to vary across workers, administer rewards so that high-performing workers receive more rewards than low-performing workers.
Do not assume that a given reward will function as a positive reinforcer to all workers. Take individual preferences into account. Make sure the consequences of a behavior are equal to the behavior. Make sure that workers know what reinforcers are available for desired behaviors. Dont just assume that they know.
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Second difference:
Punishment involves administering a negative consequence when an undesired behavior occurs. Negative reinforcement entails removing a negative consequence when a desired behavior occurs.
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Steps in OB Mod
(Figure 5.2)
Do a functional analysis
No
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Vicarious Learning
Learning that occurs when one person (the learner) learns a behavior by watching another person (the model) perform the behavior. Conditions required for vicarious learning to take place:
Learner observes the model when the model is performing the behavior Learner accurately perceives models behavior Learner must remember the behavior Learner must have the skills and abilities to perform the behavior Learner must see that the model receives reinforcement for the behavior in question
Learners can also learn from situations in which models get punished. Role models can be positive or negative.
Copyright 2002 Prentice-Hall
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Self-Control
Self-discipline that allows a person to learn to perform a behavior even though there is no external pressure to do so. Conditions indicating a person is using selfcontrol:
Individual is engaging in a low-probability behavior Self-reinforcers are available to the learner The learner sets goals that determine when selfreinforcement takes place The learner administers reinforcers when the goal is achieved
Copyright 2002 Prentice-Hall
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Self-Efficacy
A persons belief about his or her ability to perform a particular behavior successfully.
Not the same as self-esteem
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Advice to Managers
Make sure newcomers see good performers being positively reinforced for the
desirable behaviors they perform.
Tell your subordinates who the particularly good performers are so your
subordinates will know whom to model.
Do not closely supervise workers who engage in self-control. To boost and maintain high levels of self-efficacy, do the following:
a. Encourage small successes, especially for subordinates with low levels of self-efficacy. Give them tasks that you are confident they can succeed at, and progressively increase the difficulty of the tasks. b. Let subordinates know that others like them have succeeded on especially challenging projects. c. Have high expectations for your subordinates, and let them know that you are confident they can learn new and difficult tasks.
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Knowledge management is the ability to capitalize on the knowledge possessed by organizational members which is not necessarily written down anywhere or codified in formal documents.
Copyright 2002 Prentice-Hall