Chapter 2

Data Communication 2.1 Data Transmission

Key Points

Terminology (1)
Introduction of some concepts & terms used. Transmitter Receiver Medium Com. in form of electromagnetic waves Guided medium Along a physical path e.g. twisted pair, optical fiber Unguided medium Means for transmitting electromagnetic waves but not guide them e.g. air, water, vacuum
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Terminology (2)
Direct link
No intermediate devices Transmission path between 2 devices Can apply to both guided & unguided media

Point-to-point
Direct link Only 2 devices share link

Multi-point
More than two devices share the link
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Terminology (3)
Transmission mode :
Simplex One direction e.g. Television Half duplex Either direction, but only one way at a time e.g. police radio Full duplex Both directions at the same time e.g. telephone
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Frequency
Time domain concepts Analog signal Various in a smooth way over time Digital signal Maintains a constant level then changes to another constant level Periodic signal Pattern repeated over time Aperiodic signal Pattern not repeated over time Data and Computer
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Analog and Digital Data Transmission

Data Entities that convey meaning or info Signals Electric or electromagnetic representations of data Transmission Communication of data by propagation and processing of signals

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Analog and Digital Data

Analog Continuous values within some interval e.g. sound, video Digital Discrete values e.g. text, integers

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Analogue & Digital Signals

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Periodic Signals

Amplitude

Period = T = 1/f

Amplitude

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Period = T = 1/f

Sine Wave
Fundamental periodic signal Peak Amplitude (A) maximum strength of signal volts Frequency (f) Rate of change of signal Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second Period = time for one repetition (T) T = 1/f Phase () Relative position in time
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Varying Sine Waves s(t) = A sin(2ft +)

f = 1 Hz, T =1 s A = 0.5

f = 2 Hz, T =0.5 s

r ad 4 5 4 2 r ad 360 1 T

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Components of Speech
Frequency range (of hearing) 20Hz-20kHz
Speech 100Hz-7kHz

Easily converted into electromagnetic signal for transmission Sound frequencies with varying volume converted into electromagnetic frequencies with varying voltage Limit frequency range for voice channel
300-3400Hz
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Conversion of Voice Input into Analog Signal

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Binary Digital Data

Generated by computer terminals etc.
Converted into digital voltage pulses for transmission

Two dc components
Voltage levels 1s and 0s

Bandwidth of signal depends on data rate

Bandwidth approximation of digital pulse stream

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Conversion of PC Input to Digital Signal

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1 signal = 0.02 msec 1 sec = 1000 msec = 50,000 bits

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Data and Signals

Usually use digital signals for digital data and analog signals for analog data Can use analog signal to carry digital data
Modem (modulator/demodulator)
Digital signal modulator Transmission medium Analog signal demodulator Digital signal

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Data and Signals(2)

Usually use digital signals for digital data and analog signals for analog data Can use digital signal to carry analog data
Compact Disc audio Codec (coder-decoder)
Analog signal codec

Transmission medium
digital signal

receiver

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Analog Signals Carrying Analog and Digital Data

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Digital Signals Carrying Analog and Digital Data

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Analog Transmission
Analog signal transmitted without regard to content May be analog or digital data
Eg: Analog data: voice, Digital data: binary data that passed through a modem

Attenuated over distance Use amplifiers to boost signal Also amplifies noise Disadvantage: distance distortion
Analog data (eg. voice) :distortion can be tolerated Digital data :introduce errors

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Digital Transmission
Concerned with content(binary) Integrity endangered by noise, attenuation etc. -limited distance Repeaters used
Repeater receives digital signal Extracts bit pattern
recover the patterns of 1s and 0s

Retransmits
a new signal

Attenuation is overcome Noise is not amplified

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Advantages of Digital Transmission

Digital technology
Low cost LSI/VLSI technology

Data integrity
Longer distances over lower quality lines
with the use of repeater(regenerate) rather than amplifier

Capacity utilization
High bandwidth links economical.
eg: satellite channels, optical fiber

High degree of multiplexing easier with digital techniques

Time division multiplexing (TDM) rather than frequency division multiplexing (FDM)

Security & Privacy

Encryption
To digital data and analog data that have been digitized

Integration
Can treat analog and digital data similarly
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Transmission Impairments
Signal received may differ from signal transmitted Analog - degradation of signal quality Digital - bit errors Caused by
Attenuation and attenuation distortion Delay distortion Noise

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Attenuation
Signal strength falls off with distance Depends on medium Received signal strength:
must be enough to be detected must be sufficiently higher than noise to be received without error Can be dealt by using amplifier/repeater

Attenuation is an increasing function of frequency

Noticeable for analog signal Use equalizer to smooth out attenuation effect Use amplifier to amplify high freq. more than low freq.
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Delay Distortion
Only in guided media Propagation velocity varies with frequency Signal arrived distorted due to varying delays experienced at its partial freq.
For voice communication, this would probably not be noticeable but for data communication using modems, this could affect the phase of the carrier or the modulation technique used to encode the data.
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Noise (1)
Additional signals inserted between transmitter and receiver Intermodulation 1. Thermal
Due to thermal agitation of electrons Uniformly distributed White noise, cannot be eliminated

2. Intermodulation
Signals that are the sum and difference of original frequencies sharing a medium
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Noise (2)
3. Crosstalk
A signal from one line is picked up by another

4. Impulse
Irregular pulses or spikes
e.g. External electromagnetic interference

Short duration High amplitude Sharp spike could change a 1 to 0 or Data and Computer a 0 to 1. Communications

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Thermal Noise
The amount of thermal,noise to e found in a bandiwdth of 1 Hz in any device or conductor is:

N0 = kT (W/Hz)
N0 = noise power density in watt per 1 Hz of bandwidth k = boltzman constant = 1.38 x 10 T = temp, in Kelvins
Thermal noise in watt present in a bandwidth of B N = kTB = 10 log k + 10 log T + 10 log B

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Channel Capacity
Def. :Max. rate at which data can be transmitted over a given com. path/channel under given condition Concept of channel capacity: Data rate
In bits per second Rate at which data can be communicated

Bandwidth
Range of frequency In cycles per second or Hertz, (unit for frequency, f= 1/T) Constrained by transmitter and medium Data and Computer
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Channel Capacity (cont)

Noise
Average level of noise over com. path

Error rate
Rate at which errors occur Reception of a 1 when 0 was transmitted or the other way

Com. facilities are expensive

Bandwidth cost Make efficient use of given bandwidth Main constraint in achieving this efficiency is noise
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Nyquist Bandwidth
In the case of a channel that is noise free, limitation on data rate is simply the bandwidth of the signal. If rate of signal transmission is 2B then signal with frequencies no greater than B is sufficient to carry signal rate
Given bandwidth B, highest signal rate is 2B Given binary signal, data rate supported by B Hz is 2B bps

Can be increased by using M signal levels C= 2B log2M Data and Computer

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C = Channel capacity 31

Nyquist Bandwidth (2)

Can be increased by using M signal levels C= 2B log2M M is the number of discrete signal or voltage levels Eg: 1 bit value (0 to 1) = 21 (M= 2 levels) 2 bit value (00 to 11) =22 (M= 4 levels) 3 bit value (000 to 111) =23 (M= 8 levels)

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Nyquist Bandwidth (3)

Nyquists formula : C= 2B log2M Ex. 1: Consider a voice channel being used to transmit digital data. Assume a bandwidth of 3100 Hz. So the data rate, C of the channel is 2B = 6200bps For M= 8 (23 :bit value from 000 to 111), C becomes 18,600 bps for a bandwidth of 3100 Hz.
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Nyquist Bandwidth (4)

Nyquists formula : C= 2B log2M Ex. 2:

For sampling rate for analog digital signal.

What data rate is needed for a signal with a bandwidth of 10,000Hz (1,000 to 11,000 Hz)? Solution: The sampling rate must be twice the highest frequency in the signal: Data rate = 2(11,000)=22,000 data/sec
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Shannon Capacity Formula

Nyquists formula indicates that doubling the bandwidth doubles the data rate. Consider data rate, noise and error rate Faster data rate shortens each bit, so burst of noise affects more bits
At given noise level, high data rate means higher error rate Greater signal strength would improve ability to receive data correctly in the presence of noise.

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Shannon Capacity Formula (2)

Formula developed by a mathematician Claude Shannon. Signal to noise ration (in decibels) SNRdb=10 log10 (signal/noise)
Ex.: Suppose that Vs = 10.0 v and Vn = 1.00 v . Then
S/N = 20 log(10(1.00)) = 20.0 dB

Max. channel capacity C=B log2(1+SNR) This is error free capacity

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Shannon Capacity Formula (3)

Ex.2: Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the signal-to-noise ration is almost zero. In other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint. For this channel, the capacity is calculated as C = B log2 (1 + S/N) = B log2 (1 + 0) = B log2 (1) = B x 0 = 0 This means that the capacity of this channel is zero regardless of the bandwidth. In other words, Data and Computer we cannot send any data through this Communications 37 channel.

Shannon Capacity Formula (3)

Let us consider an ex. that relates te Nyquist and Shannon formulations. Ex.: Suppose that the spectrum of a channel is between 3 MHz and 4 MHz and SNRdB=24 dB B = 4 MHz 3 MHz = 1 MHz SNRdB = 24 dB = 10 log10 (SNR)=251 Using Shannons formula, C = 106 x log2 (1+251)106 x 8 = 8 Mbps

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Shannon Capacity Formula (4)

Based on Nyquists formula, how many signaling levels are required? B = 4 MHz 3 MHz = 1 MHz Using Shannons formula, C = 106 x log2 (1+251)106 x 8 = 8 Mbps C = 2B log2 M 8 x 106 = 2 x (106) x log2 M 4 = log2 M M = 16
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Data and Computer Communications

CONCLUSION
Successful transmission of data depends principally on 2 factors
Quality of the signal being transmitted Characters of the transmission medium

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Key Points
All forms of info. can be represented by electromagnetic signals Analog or Digital signals can be used to convey info. The greater the bandwidth of the signal, the greater its info.-carrying capacity

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Key Points (2)

Major problem in designing a com. facility is transmission impairment
Attenuation, delay attenuation, noise (thermal noise, intermodulation noise, crosstalk, impulse noise)

Designer of com. facility must deal with 4 factors

Bandwidth of signal, data rate that is used for digital info., amount of noise & other impairments, and the level of error rate that is acceptable.
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LSI and VLSI

The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Called "SmallScale Integration" (SSI), they used circuits containing transistors numbering in the tens. The next step in the development of integrated circuits, taken in the late 1960s, introduced devices which contained hundreds of transistors on each chip, called "Medium-Scale Integration" (MSI). They were attractive economically because while they cost little more to produce than SSI devices, they allowed more complex systems to be produced using smaller circuit boards, less assembly work (because of fewer separate components), and a number of other advantages. Further development, driven by the same economic factors, led to "LargeScale Integration" (LSI) in the mid 1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per chip. Integrated circuits such as 1K-bit RAMs, calculator chips, and the first microprocessors, that began to be manufactured in moderate quantities in the early 1970s, had under 4000 transistors. True LSI circuits, approaching 10,000 transistors, began to be produced around 1974, for computer main memories and second-generation microprocessors. The final step in the development process, starting in the 1980s and continuing on, was "Very Large-Scale Integration" (VLSI), with hundreds of thousands of transistors, and beyond (well past several million in the latest stages). For Computer Data andthe first time it became possible to fabricate a CPU on a single integrated circuit, to create a microprocessor. Communications 43

FDM and TDM

FDM
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TDM
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